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The [[Qur'an|Quran]] has a particular conception of the nature of mountains, their formation, and the geological role they play that is is referenced in multiple verses. In recent times, many Islamic scholars have argued that this conception is both scientifically sound and an instance of [[Scientific Miracles in the Quran|miraculous scientific foreknowledge]] on the part of the Quran which, they argue, could not have arrived at the conception it holds without divine insight. Individuals key to the popularization of this idea include the [[Apologists| | The [[Qur'an|Quran]] has a particular conception of the nature of mountains, their formation, and the geological role they play that is is referenced in multiple verses. In recent times, many Islamic scholars have argued that this conception is both scientifically sound and an instance of [[Scientific Miracles in the Quran|miraculous scientific foreknowledge]] on the part of the Quran which, they argue, could not have arrived at the conception it holds without divine insight. Individuals key to the popularization of this idea include the [[Apologists|apologist]] [[Zakir Naik]] and the Saudi-financed surgeon [[Bucailleism|Dr. Maurice Bucaille]]. | ||
Parties advocating the description of mountains found in the Quran as a scientific miracle identify two key claims made in the scripture: (1) that Mountains can be described as 'pegs' and (2) that mountains play some role in 'stabilizing the Earth' - these two ideas, advocates hold, are evidence of a miraculous scientific insight. Critics challenge the advocates' interpretations of the relevant verses as well as their use and presentation of scientific information on the topic, arguing instead that the Quran is erroneous in these respects. Critics further claim that the Qur'an is scientifically inaccurate in its description a specific time period in which mountains were supposedly formed and Allah having cast them into the earth. | Parties advocating the description of mountains found in the Quran as a scientific miracle identify two key claims made in the scripture: (1) that Mountains can be described as 'pegs' and (2) that mountains play some role in 'stabilizing the Earth' - these two ideas, advocates hold, are evidence of a miraculous scientific insight. Critics challenge the advocates' interpretations of the relevant verses as well as their use and presentation of scientific information on the topic, arguing instead that the Quran is erroneous in these respects. Critics further claim that the Qur'an is scientifically inaccurate in its description a specific time period in which mountains were supposedly formed and Allah having cast them into the earth. | ||
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Again, mountain formation is described in all these verses only as a past event. However, according to modern science, mountains were not placed or cast into the earth's surface, but rather they are byproducts of an ongoing process driven by [[w:Plate tectionics|plate tectonics]] in which continental and oceanic crust plates slowly move over time, driven by 1) mantle convection currents, 2) by ridge push as buoyant magma upwells at oceanic ridges, and 3) by slab pull, as the leading edges of plates sink at subduction zones, cooling and pulling the rest of the plate behind. A number of processes can result in the gradual formation and disappearance of mountain ranges (often accompanied by earthquakes). Such processes include when the collision of two continental plates results in a thickening of the crust, or when an oceanic plate subducts underneath a continental plate, resulting in volcanic mountain formation and an accretionary wedge, or mountains formed by fault blocks or tilted block faulting (see illustrations below). Eventually, erosion causes the mountain range to disappear as has happened many times over the eons. The implication of the Quranic verses are instead that Allah cast or placed mountains by special creation in certain locations rather them being a byproduct of a larger ongoing process (tectonic movements). | Again, mountain formation is described in all these verses only as a past event. However, according to modern science, mountains were not placed or cast into the earth's surface, but rather they are byproducts of an ongoing process driven by [[w:Plate tectionics|plate tectonics]] in which continental and oceanic crust plates slowly move over time, driven by 1) mantle convection currents, 2) by ridge push as buoyant magma upwells at oceanic ridges, and 3) by slab pull, as the leading edges of plates sink at subduction zones, cooling and pulling the rest of the plate behind. A number of processes can result in the gradual formation and disappearance of mountain ranges (often accompanied by earthquakes). Such processes include when the collision of two continental plates results in a thickening of the crust, or when an oceanic plate subducts underneath a continental plate, resulting in volcanic mountain formation and an accretionary wedge, or mountains formed by fault blocks or tilted block faulting (see illustrations below). Eventually, erosion causes the mountain range to disappear as has happened many times over the eons. The implication of the Quranic verses are instead that Allah cast or placed mountains by special creation in certain locations rather them being a byproduct of a larger ongoing process (tectonic movements). | ||
Some critics also note that in another verse, {{Quran|41|10}} discussed above, Allah placed (jaʿala) on the earth mountains "from above it" (min fawqiha من فوقها), though almost all | Some critics also note that in another verse, {{Quran|41|10}} discussed above, says Allah placed (jaʿala) on the earth mountains "from above it" (min fawqiha من فوقها), though almost all modern official translations interpret the Arabic simply to mean the mountains are above the earth's surface.<ref>See a variety of official translations of ''[https://quranx.com/41.10 Verse 41:10 on Quranx.com]''. Note that not all do; see Ahmad Khan and Hilali & Khan,</ref> Either interpretation seems possible based on how the preposition with noun are used in [https://quranx.com/Analysis/Root/fa-waw-gaf some other verses] - see for example {{Quran|6|65}}, {{Quran|29|55}} or {{Quran|33|10}}, though on the other hand {{Quran|39|16}} and {{Quran|39|20}}. | ||
==Mountains as pegs== | ==Mountains as pegs== | ||
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'''He spread it out''' and when He saw that it was settled upon the waters, He fixed the mountains upon it}} | '''He spread it out''' and when He saw that it was settled upon the waters, He fixed the mountains upon it}} | ||
Though the idea of mountains preventing the world from shaking is far more ancient, being found even in much earlier Vedic texts,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda Veda] | Hinduism | Britannica Entry | |||
''..No definite date can be ascribed to the composition of the Vedas, but the period of about 1500–1200 BCE is acceptable to most scholars..''</ref> along with a similar creation story of the [[Scientific Errors in the Quran#Earth%20and%20heavens%20torn%20apart|Earth and sky being split]] in {{Quran|21|30}} and [[:en:A_Barrier_Between_Two_Seas_and_the_Cosmic_Ocean|cosmic waters]], with all three being folklore of ancient people.<ref>Witzel, E.J. Michael. The Origins of the World's Mythologies (p. 137). Oxford University Press. | |||
''Footnote 289 (p. 470): Ṛgveda 1.19.7 etc.; Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā 1.10.13; Kaṭha Saṃhitā 36.7 (see above, § 2, n. 167; § 3, n. 283. Note that both the stemming part and the fixing of the Earth occur much later in mythological time than that of Heaven and Earth. Indra is a descendant of the second generation of deities. If we count the Asuras or Titans as the third generation, they are in fact the cousins of the “fourth” generation, to which Indra belongs. In Japan, the feature of preparing the land for habitation occurs again later on (cf. Aston 1972: 59). Probably in both traditions, myths were restructured restructured and attributed to the most important gods.''</ref> | |||
{{Quote|Witzel, E.J. Michael. The Origins of the World's Mythologies (p. 137). Oxford University Press. 2013.|After the permanent separation of heaven and earth, creation continues with the actual formation of land (cf. § 3.3). Usually this is done with the help of a demiurge, such as the Vedic Indra, who created land some time after he had stemmed apart Heaven and Earth: <b>the Earth, floating on the ocean, was shaky still.</b> As mentioned, Indra cut off the wings of the mountains that used to fly around and sit down here and there. <b>Once the mountains sat down permanently, the Earth became fixed.</b> <sup>289</sup>}} | |||
===Alleged peg-like structure of mountains=== | ===Alleged peg-like structure of mountains=== | ||
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[[File:Tibetan-plateau.jpeg|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Delamination underneath part of the Tibetan Plateau. Notice also the wedge-shaped and not at all peg-like crust in the northward cross-section of the plateau.<ref>Fig. 5 in Jikun Feng, Huajian Yao, Ling Chen, Weitao Wang, [https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/9/4/nwab174/6369358 Massive lithospheric delamination in southeastern Tibet facilitating continental extrusion], National Science Review, Volume 9, Issue 4, April 2022, nwab174, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwab174</ref>]]. | [[File:Tibetan-plateau.jpeg|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Delamination underneath part of the Tibetan Plateau. Notice also the wedge-shaped and not at all peg-like crust in the northward cross-section of the plateau.<ref>Fig. 5 in Jikun Feng, Huajian Yao, Ling Chen, Weitao Wang, [https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/9/4/nwab174/6369358 Massive lithospheric delamination in southeastern Tibet facilitating continental extrusion], National Science Review, Volume 9, Issue 4, April 2022, nwab174, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwab174</ref>]]. | ||
It could be added that far more significant downwards protrusions into the molten | It could be added that far more significant downwards protrusions into the molten asthenosphere are the subducted slabs of lithosphere which descend into the molten mantle at plate boundaries, and are sometimes in a state of partial detachment. Another example of downward protruding material which is far more substantial than crustal roots are craton keels. [[w:Craton|Cratons]] are stable regions of the earth's crust that are no longer subject to mountain building processes. Craton keels are deep extensions of cratons into the mantle which extend any where from 60-300km below the surface. These keels extend far deeper than crustal (mountain) roots. The formation of these craton roots, or keels, is, however, unrelated to mountains or their formation.<ref name="Perchuk2021">Perchuk, A.L., Gerya, T.V., Zakharov, V.S. et al. [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2806-7 Building cratonic keels in Precambrian plate tectonics] Nature 586, 395–401 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2806-7</ref> | ||
<BR /> | <BR /> | ||
[[File:TectonicSlabs.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Three-dimensional cross section beneath the European Alps showing attached and detached parts of a lithosphere slab based on tomographic profiles by M. R. Handy et. al. (2021)<ref>Fig. 11 in Handy, M. R., Schmid, S. M., Paffrath, M., Friederich, W., and the AlpArray Working Group: [https://se.copernicus.org/articles/12/2633/2021/ Orogenic lithosphere and slabs in the greater Alpine area – interpretations based on teleseismic P-wave tomography], Solid Earth, 12, 2633–2669, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2633-2021, 2021</ref><BR />Subducted slabs are far more significant downward protrusions than the crustal thickening which occurs beneath some mountain ranges.]] | [[File:TectonicSlabs.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Three-dimensional cross section beneath the European Alps showing attached and detached parts of a lithosphere slab based on tomographic profiles by M. R. Handy et. al. (2021)<ref>Fig. 11 in Handy, M. R., Schmid, S. M., Paffrath, M., Friederich, W., and the AlpArray Working Group: [https://se.copernicus.org/articles/12/2633/2021/ Orogenic lithosphere and slabs in the greater Alpine area – interpretations based on teleseismic P-wave tomography], Solid Earth, 12, 2633–2669, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2633-2021, 2021</ref><BR />Subducted slabs are far more significant downward protrusions than the crustal thickening which occurs beneath some mountain ranges.]] | ||
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{{Quote|{{Quran|31|10}}|He created the heavens without pillars that you see and has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it should shift with you, and dispersed therein from every creature. And We sent down rain from the sky and made grow therein [plants] of every noble kind}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|31|10}}|He created the heavens without pillars that you see and has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it should shift with you, and dispersed therein from every creature. And We sent down rain from the sky and made grow therein [plants] of every noble kind}} | ||
As mentioned above, the word describing the mountains in these verses is l-rawāsiya (the steadfast, anchored, anchors, used to mean mountains).<ref name="LexiconRawaasiya" /> Incidentally, the first two verses state that Allah created mountain passes for the benefit of humans. Critics would observe here that many mountain ranges are inconvenient for humans to traverse, with large detours necessary, and show no sign that they were designed with passes perfectly suited to human needs. | As mentioned above, the word describing the mountains in these verses is l-rawāsiya (the steadfast, anchored, anchors, used to mean mountains).<ref name="LexiconRawaasiya" /> As Tabatai & Mirsadri (2016) note: | ||
{{Quote|Tabatabaʾi, Mohammad A.; Mirsadri, Saida, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24811784 "The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself"], Arabica 63 (3/4): 201-234, 2016|One important feature of the earth, in the eyes of the Qur'ân, is its tranquility against sudden motions, for God has put it stable (Kor 27, 61; 35, 41). This stability is due to the massive corpuses, namely mountains, which are put upon the earth (Kor 41,10; 88,19), like pegs (Kor 78,7), in order to fix the earth into its place. It is why the Qur'ân in ten places (Kor 13,3; 15,19; 16,15; 21,31; 27,61; 31,10; 41,10; 50, 7; 77, 27; 79, 32) describes them as rawäsi or räsiyät, both plural forms for râsiya, which stands for something which is fastened to the earth due to its heaviness. So, according to the Qur'än, mountains are the heavy masses upon the earth which like pegs are hammered to it, lest it would shake.}} | |||
Incidentally, the first two verses state that Allah created mountain passes for the benefit of humans. Critics would observe here that many mountain ranges are inconvenient for humans to traverse, with large detours necessary, and show no sign that they were designed with passes perfectly suited to human needs. | |||
===Refers to the earth as a whole=== | ===Refers to the earth as a whole=== | ||
While it is common today to interpret the above verses as a reference to earthquakes, it is far more likely that they refer to the earth as a whole. Since the author of these verses would have known that earthquakes do in fact occur, including in Arabia itself, it is unlikely that he would have described mountains as being created lest people suffer earthquakes. The most natural reading is that "the earth" (al-ard) in these verses refer to the entire Earth, | While it is common today to interpret the above verses as a reference to earthquakes, it is far more likely that they refer to the earth as a whole. Since the author of these verses would have known that earthquakes do in fact occur, including in Arabia itself, it is unlikely that he would have described mountains as being created lest people suffer earthquakes. The most natural reading is that "the earth" (al-ard) in these verses refer to the entire Earth. This is especially clear in {{Quran|31|10}} and {{Quran-range|21|30|31}} in which the heavens are mentioned immediately beforehand, and fits with the verse discussed above in which mountains are described as pegs or stakes. | ||
Verses which do seem to describe earthquakes use the words zalzalah ({{Quran|22|1}}), or rajfatu ({{Quran|7|78}}, {{Quran|73|14}}). In contrast, the verses which state that Allah cast or placed the mountains to prevent the earth from shaking use the word tamīda, discussed in the next section below. | The poem quoted above attributed to the pre-Islamic poet al-Muhalhil links the mountains (rawāsiya, like in these verses of the Quran) to the shifting/convulsing (with the same verb as these verses) of the entire earth. Similarly, the myth of [[The Islamic Whale]] on which the Earth rests according to some hadiths was narrated in terms of mountains holding down the earth to stop it moving on the back of the whale. | ||
Verses which do seem to describe earthquakes use the words zalzalah ({{Quran|22|1}} and {{Quran|99|1}}), or rajfatu ({{Quran|7|78}}, {{Quran|73|14}}). In contrast, the verses which state that Allah cast or placed the mountains to prevent the earth from shaking use the word tamīda, discussed in the next sub-section below. | |||
Further evidence that the tamīda verses refer to the earth as a whole moving is found in a hadith collected by al-Tirmidhi. Its authenticity is graded hasan (good) by Dar-us-Salam, though regardless, this hadith provides linguistic evidence on the meaning of tamīda in relation to the earth as a whole. | Further evidence that the tamīda verses refer to the earth as a whole moving is found in a hadith collected by al-Tirmidhi. Its authenticity is graded hasan (good) by Dar-us-Salam, though regardless, this hadith provides linguistic evidence on the meaning of tamīda in relation to the earth as a whole. | ||
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3369}}|Anas bin Malik narrated that: | {{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3369}}|Anas bin Malik narrated that: | ||
The Prophet said: “When Allah created the earth, it started shaking [tamīdu]. So He created the mountains, and said to them: ‘Upon it’ so it began to settle. [...]}} | The Prophet said: “When Allah created the earth, it started shaking [tamīdu]. So He created the mountains, and said to them: ‘Upon it’ so it began to settle. [...]}}Prominent Qur'anic commentator [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Kathir Ibn Kathir] also says in his tafsir: | ||
{{Quote|[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/16.15 Tafsir Ibn Kathir 16:15]|...then Allah mentions the earth and how He placed in it mountains standing firm, which make it stable and keep it from shaking in such a manner that the creatures dwelling on it would not be able to live. Hence Allah says, (And the mountains He has fixed firmly.) (79: 32)...}} | |||
Similarly, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafsir_al-Jalalayn Tafsir Al-Jalalayn,]another prominent Sunni commentary says: | |||
{{Quote|[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.19 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn 15:19]|And the earth We have stretched it out, spread it flat, and cast therein firm mountains, lest it should sway beneath its inhabitants, and caused to grow therein every kind of balanced thing, [every kind of thing] known and determined.}} | |||
===The meaning of tamīda (move, convulse, incline to one side)=== | ====The meaning of tamīda (move, convulse, incline to one side)==== | ||
The word translated shift in the above quoted verses is tamīda (from the root ميد). According to Lane's Lexicon, the meanings of this word include to be in a state of motion, convulsion, turn, twist, contort, to incline to one side. Lane even mentions regarding this word a tradition which held that the earth was inclined on its side before mountains were formed.<ref name="tamida">تَمِيدَ tamīda [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000274.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 2746</ref> | The word translated shift in the above quoted verses is tamīda (from the root ميد). According to Lane's Lexicon, the meanings of this word include to be in a state of motion, convulsion, turn, twist, contort, to incline to one side. Lane even mentions regarding this word a tradition which held that the earth was inclined on its side before mountains were formed.<ref name="tamida">تَمِيدَ tamīda [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000274.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 2746</ref> | ||
{{Quote|[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000274.pdf Lane's Lexicon for the root ميد]| | |||
مَادَ, aor. يَمِيدُ, inf. n. مَيْدٌ (Ṣ, L, Mṣb, Ḳ) and مَيَدَانٌ, (L, Mṣb, Ḳ,) It (a thing) was, or became in a state of motion, or commotion; was, or became agitated: (Ṣ, L, Mṣb, Ḳ:) or, in a state of violent motion or commotion; or violently agitated. (El-Basáïr, TA.) So in the expression in the Ḳur, [xvi. 15; and xxxi. 9;] أَنْ تَمِيدَ بِكُمْ Lest it (the earth) should be convulsed with you, and go round with you, and move you about violently. (El-Basáïr, TA.) | |||
مَادَ It turned or twisted about, or became contorted and convulsed. (IḲṭṭ.) | |||
[...] | |||
مَادَ, inf. n. مَيْدٌ and مَيَدَانٌ, It inclined to one side: as the earth is, in a trad., described to have done before the mountains were formed. (L.)}} | |||
The usage of this word further supports the interpretation that these verses refer to mountains anchoring the earth as a whole from moving in such a manner. | The usage of this word further supports the interpretation that these verses refer to mountains anchoring the earth as a whole from moving in such a manner. | ||
It is clear that the author of the Quran sought to describe some purposeful benefit for which he supposed mountains had been created. This desire is fulfilled by such | It is clear that the author of the Quran sought to describe some purposeful benefit for which he supposed mountains had been created. This desire is fulfilled by such a (mistaken) conception of mountains. Other interpretations which seek to interpret mountains as protecting humans from the effects of plate tectonics or earthquakes falter when one considers that an all-powerful creator of the heavens and earth would have been capable of actually ending all dangerous geological activity before humans arrived on the scene. Instead, some mountain ranges are in regions that are still geologically active, while other mountain ranges are in parts of the world which ceased being geologically active hundreds of millions of years before humans arrived (for example the highlands of Scotland). | ||
=== | ===The relationship between mountains and earthquakes=== | ||
[[File:MarshakEarthquakes.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Fig. 8.18 in Stephen Marshak, ''Essentials of Geology'' Fourth Edition, 2013, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, p. 236]] | |||
The most common apologetic interpretation is to claim that the Quran speaks of mountains preventing or reducing the severity of earthquakes. However, two major problems with such an interpretation are raised by critics, as set out in the subsections below: 1) Seismic amplification can sometimes mean that mountains actually increase the destruction caused by earthquakes; and 2) Destructive and deadly earthquakes do in fact occur (i.e. they are not prevented by mountains), and are correlated strongly with the location of mountain ranges due to the very nature of the underlying processes. | |||
====Mountains and the dampening (or amplification) of seismic waves==== | |||
{{Quote|{{cite web|url=http://bssa.geoscienceworld.org/content/97/6/2066.abstract |title=Effects of Large-Scale Surface Topography on Ground Motions, as Demonstrated by a Study of the San Gabriel Mountains, Los Angeles, California |publisher= |author= |date= |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}|We investigate the effects of large-scale surface topography on ground motions generated by nearby faulting. We show a specific example studying the effect of the San Gabriel Mountains, which are bounded by the Mojave segment of the San Andreas fault on the north and by the Los Angeles Basin on the south. By simulating a Mw 7.5 earthquake on the Mojave segment of the San Andreas fault, we show that the San Gabriel Mountains act as a natural seismic insulator for metropolitan Los Angeles. The topography of the mountains scatters the surface waves generated by the rupture on the San Andreas fault, leading to less-efficient excitation of basin-edge generated waves and natural resonances within the Los Angeles Basin. The effect of the mountains reduces the peak amplitude of ground velocity for some regions in the basin by as much as 50% in the frequency band up to 0.5 Hz. These results suggest that, depending on the relative location of faulting and the nearby large-scale topography, the topography can shield some areas from ground shaking.}} | |||
The above and similar studies are referenced by advocates as specific evidence of mountains stabilizing the Earth's crust and undermining seismic activity. Critics respond in two ways: Firstly, although the phenomenon described has a limited stabilizing effect on certain regions favorably positioned vis-à-vis the mountain range, the mountains do not prevent the earthquake outright and, more importantly, the limited dampening effect observed is only relevant if the inhabited area happens to be favorably positioned vis-à-vis the mountain range - this means that if, for instance, the city were located between the mountain and the fault line where the quake originated, even if the city was located near the foot of the mountain, then the destruction experienced by the city would not be reduced in any significant way. | |||
Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, the topography (surface layout) of mountainous landscapes can actually '''amplify''' the seismic waves and thus the groundshaking experienced in some locations while dampening the waves elsewhere. This again depends on a number of factors such as the depth of the fault and the precise topography, but there are real studies showing this effect, both with measured seismic data and with computer modelling. | |||
In particular, topography amplifies ground shaking at mountain tops and ridges (especially the slopes facing away from the source), while it de-amplifies it in valleys.<ref>Khan, S., van der Meijde, M., van der Werff, H., and Shafique, M. (2020) [https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/20/399/2020/ The impact of topography on seismic amplification during the 2005 Kashmir earthquake], Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 399–411, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-399-2020 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20230225031711/https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/20/399/2020/ archive])</ref> Around the world, human settlements are commonly built not only in valleys but also on mountain and hill-sides. | |||
Seismic amplification can also occur in low-lying areas where cities are more commonly found, especially for deeper earthquakes. The image below from a study of the effect of the mountainous topography around the Taipei basin illustrates that in some circumstances an earthquake would be more destructive to the city of Taipei due to the Central Mountain Range on the Island of Taiwan than if it was surrounded by a smooth topography (click or tap the image to expand the thumbnail). | |||
[[File:TaipeiWavePropogation.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|3D seismic wave speed models of a deep earthquake in northern Taiwan by Shiann et. al., ''Effects of Topography on Seismic-Wave Propagation: An Example from Northern Taiwan'', (2009)<ref>Fig. 2 from Lee, Shiann-Jong & Komatitsch, Dimitri & Huang, Bor-Shouh & Tromp, Jeroen. (2009). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/30771047_Effects_of_Topography_on_Seismic-Wave_Propagation_An_Example_from_Northern_Taiwan Effects of Topography on Seismic-Wave Propagation: An Example from Northern Taiwan]. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 99. 10.1785/0120080020.</ref><BR />The models take into account the basin but not the mountainous topography (top) or take both into account (middle). The most significant net difference between the two (bottom) is that much of the Taipei basin experiences strongly amplified peak ground velocity (how fast any point on the ground shakes) from the earthquake when the topography of the Central Mountain Range is taken into account.]] | |||
[[File: | |||
====Correlation between the location of earthquakes and mountains==== | |||
Critics also point out that scientists learned as early as the 1920s that earthquakes are concentrated in very specific and narrow zones arounds the planet (known as Wadati-Benioff zones). In 1954, French seismologist J.P. Rothé published a map showing the concentration of earthquakes along the zones indicated by dots and cross-hatched areas.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/zones.html|2=2011-10-02}} Earthquake zones] - U.S. Geological Survey</ref><center>[[File:Map_by_J.P._Rothé.gif|alt=|center|thumb|425x425px|J.P. Rothé's 1954 map]]</center> | |||
Critics note how the earthquakes originate mainly from the edges of tectonic plates, including collisional mountain ranges and ocean trenches and ridges, which demonstrates that mountains do not stabilize the crust or the earth. The presence of mountains on any part of the Earth's surface thus often suggests the presence of precisely those underground geographical circumstances which generate earthquakes. If there were no mountains, there would also be no tectonic activity, since the two are inextricably linked, and with no tectonic activity there would be no earthquakes. | Critics note how the earthquakes originate mainly from the edges of tectonic plates, including collisional mountain ranges and ocean trenches and ridges, which demonstrates that mountains do not stabilize the crust or the earth. The presence of mountains on any part of the Earth's surface thus often suggests the presence of precisely those underground geographical circumstances which generate earthquakes. If there were no mountains, there would also be no tectonic activity, since the two are inextricably linked, and with no tectonic activity there would be no earthquakes. | ||
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{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/events/1960_05_22_articles.php|2=2011-10-02}} Historic Earthquakes]<BR>U.S. Geological Survey, March 29, 2010|Chile<BR>1960 May 22 19:11:14 UTC <BR>Magnitude 9.5 <BR>The Largest Earthquake in the World <BR><BR>More than 2,000 killed, 3,000 injured, 2,000,000 homeless, and $550 million damage in southern Chile; tsunami caused 61 deaths, $75 million damage in Hawaii; 138 deaths and $50 million damage in Japan; 32 dead and missing in the Philippines; and $500,000 damage to the west coast of the United States.}}The Andes Mountains did not prevent or stabilize this earthquake. On the contrary, later research revealed that the collision of tectonic plates that caused the earthquake also caused the Andes mountains to be raised. Similar earthquakes in the past are responsible for the existence of Andes in the first place. This collision even serves as a textbook example of the general phenomena, as can be seen below.{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/tectonic.htm|2=2011-10-02}} Plate tectonics]<BR>Earth Science From Moorland School|This is a convergent plate boundary, the plates move towards each other. The amount of crust on the surface of the earth remains relatively constant. Therefore, when plates diverge (separate) and form new crust in one area, the plates must converge (come together) in another area and be destroyed. An example of this is the Nazca plate being subducted under the South American plate to form the Andes Mountain Chain.}}[[File:Platetecmap.gif|alt=|center]] | {{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/events/1960_05_22_articles.php|2=2011-10-02}} Historic Earthquakes]<BR>U.S. Geological Survey, March 29, 2010|Chile<BR>1960 May 22 19:11:14 UTC <BR>Magnitude 9.5 <BR>The Largest Earthquake in the World <BR><BR>More than 2,000 killed, 3,000 injured, 2,000,000 homeless, and $550 million damage in southern Chile; tsunami caused 61 deaths, $75 million damage in Hawaii; 138 deaths and $50 million damage in Japan; 32 dead and missing in the Philippines; and $500,000 damage to the west coast of the United States.}}The Andes Mountains did not prevent or stabilize this earthquake. On the contrary, later research revealed that the collision of tectonic plates that caused the earthquake also caused the Andes mountains to be raised. Similar earthquakes in the past are responsible for the existence of Andes in the first place. This collision even serves as a textbook example of the general phenomena, as can be seen below.{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/tectonic.htm|2=2011-10-02}} Plate tectonics]<BR>Earth Science From Moorland School|This is a convergent plate boundary, the plates move towards each other. The amount of crust on the surface of the earth remains relatively constant. Therefore, when plates diverge (separate) and form new crust in one area, the plates must converge (come together) in another area and be destroyed. An example of this is the Nazca plate being subducted under the South American plate to form the Andes Mountain Chain.}}[[File:Platetecmap.gif|alt=|center]] | ||
===Tectonic plate interpretations=== | |||
Some advocates of the miracle claim argue that where mountains result from the collision of tectonic plates, they also cause the stability of the Earth. Maurice Bucaille in his book ''The Bible, the Quran and Science'' wrote as follows:{{Quote|Maurice Bucaille,''The Bible, the Quran and Science''|Modern geologists describe the folds in the Earth as giving foundations to the mountains, and their dimensions go roughly one mile to roughly 10 miles. The stability of the Earth's crust results from the phenomenon of these folds.}}Critics, in response, point out the difference between cause and effect, suggesting that the advocates conflate the two. The formation of mountains is an incidental result of the collision or rifting (separation) of the tectonic plates, events which in fact cause rather than prevent earthquakes. The formation of mountains and occurance of earthquakes are thus both largely the result of destabilizing tectonic activity. They are part of the same ongoing process and one cannot exist without the other. Like earthquakes, the mountains generated at these plate boundaries and fault lines are a product of the tectonic movement and cannot be said to in any sense prevent its other effects from taking place. | |||
Other advocates for the Quran, aware that these mountains result from and do not prevent tectonic collision, proceed differently. These advocates argue that the mountains slow the collision of continental plates down and dampen the impact. To these advocates, critics respond that what stops the collisions are simply the opposing forces of either plate. It is impossible that crustal plates collisions could occur without forming mountains since they are part of the same physical process and laws, so a special divine act of creation to create mountains is unnecessary and meaningless. To put it another way, it is nonsensical to say that the earth would shift/convulse with its inhabitants (per the Quran) if the tectonic plate collisions happened without the formation of mountains. One cannot exist without the other. | |||
Moreover, the critics add, considering the above, these mountains are not acting in any capacity that can be described as peg-like (a better analogy might be the bumper of a car, which crumples upon collision to save the driver, for instance, from being crumpled - but this has nothing to do with pegs and does not serve the purpose of 'stabilization'). Nor does such an interpretation take account of the other types of mountain formation discussed above, for example fault block mountains which occur as plates move apart rather than together. | |||
===Mountains and isostatic stabilization=== | ===Mountains and isostatic stabilization=== | ||
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Another way the critics put it is that the phenomenon of isostasy is itself responsible for the stability of the crust - whether or not the crust is host to mountains in any given region. Isostasy stabilizes mountains, even terrain, and even indented regions on the Earth's surface. The Mountains do not cause this isostasy any more than isostasy causes mountains, as isostasy is co-occurrent with any variety of terrain - mountainous or otherwise. The co-occurrent isostasy is, however, responsible for the stability of the mountains as well as the crust, and not the other way around - that is, a region excepted from the norms of isostasy (as many are) will not be as stable, whether this region is mountainous or not. Isostasy is best understood as a phenomenon separate from the mountains altogether, as it is no more bound in the simple fact of its existence to the presence of mountains than it is to region of simple, flat crust (even if the specific form it takes in either of these cases is). | Another way the critics put it is that the phenomenon of isostasy is itself responsible for the stability of the crust - whether or not the crust is host to mountains in any given region. Isostasy stabilizes mountains, even terrain, and even indented regions on the Earth's surface. The Mountains do not cause this isostasy any more than isostasy causes mountains, as isostasy is co-occurrent with any variety of terrain - mountainous or otherwise. The co-occurrent isostasy is, however, responsible for the stability of the mountains as well as the crust, and not the other way around - that is, a region excepted from the norms of isostasy (as many are) will not be as stable, whether this region is mountainous or not. Isostasy is best understood as a phenomenon separate from the mountains altogether, as it is no more bound in the simple fact of its existence to the presence of mountains than it is to region of simple, flat crust (even if the specific form it takes in either of these cases is). | ||
===Mountains and stabilization of the Earth about its axis=== | ===Mountains and stabilization of the Earth about its axis=== | ||
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Critics also argue here that it is nearly impossible to correlate this stabilization effect, how minimally real it may be, with any remotely plausible interpretation of the relevant verses. | Critics also argue here that it is nearly impossible to correlate this stabilization effect, how minimally real it may be, with any remotely plausible interpretation of the relevant verses. | ||
=== | == Preventing/lest (أَن) verses 'reducing' == | ||
{{Quote|{{ | As has been discussed in the sections above, the apologists' claim rests on the (incorrect) assumption that mountains reduce the seismic impact of Earthquakes, (or occasionally some other kind of movement) to mean what is meant by Earth's swaying/shaking. However the Arabic word used in the verses is '[https://corpus.quran.com/wordmorphology.jsp?location=(16:15:5) أَن / an]', for 'lest'.<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/01_A/138_An.html أَن] - Lane's Lexicon </ref> | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|He cast firm mountains in the earth lest (أَن) it should shake with you, and [made] streams and ways, so that you may be guided.}} | |||
Thought the word 'lest' has fallen out of fashion in modern English,<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/radio/specials/1535_questionanswer/page68.shtml BBC World Learning Service]. Q&A.</ref> it's meaning is: ''in order to prevent any possibility that something will happen'',<ref>Cambridge Dictionary: [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/lest Lest]</ref> i.e. to stop it from happening. It also be translated as 'otherwise' in these contexts. You can see used elsewhere where you can see [https://corpus.quran.com/search.jsp?t=1&q=lest here], for example: | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|127}}|And (remember) when your Lord brought forth from the Children of Adam, from their loins, their seed (or from Adam's loin his offspring) and made them testify as to themselves (saying): "Am I not your Lord?" They said: "Yes! We testify," lest (أَن) you should say on the Day of Resurrection: "Verily, we have been unaware of this."}} | |||
No-one would ever claim mountains actually prevent earthquakes altogether, considering they do not and in fact given the correlation between them and mountain ranges ([[The Quran and Mountains#Mountains prevent the Earth from moving / convulsing / inclining|see above]]), nor any of the nice alternative processes are described as being stopped altogether. The apologists have essentially used a subtle substitution of 'lest' meaning to ''prevent or stop'', to ''lower/reduce/diminish the effect of'', yet the Qur'an does not say 'reduce/lower shaking' etc.,<ref>E.g. see alternative Arabic words for reducing that could have been used if that is what it meant here: [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-arabic/reduce Cambridge English to Arabic dictionary] and here: [https://www.arabicstudentsdictionary.com/word?word_id=b4b95ee3-4477-4df5-b43a-7dba8a4a5c7f&root_id=d734198e-e468-41a4-b6b7-3f7904ced653&action=wordLink Arabic Student's Dictionary]. This does not even include potential metaphors that could have been used to express lowering.</ref> nor does the Qur'an say mountains prevent the Earth shaking/swaying ''a lot/heavily etc'' - so we would expect to see no shaking/swaying from whichever alleged natural process this is referring to rather than simply a minor reduction - making the entire argument invalid. | |||
And once again, critics note that the language used here perfectly matches a pre-modern worldview of mountains being tent pegs holding down a flat Earth that outright stops it from swaying (given the lack of understanding of physics at the time of revelation), either in space or the cosmic ocean. | |||
==See Also== | ==See Also== | ||
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*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]] | *[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]] | ||
*[[Scientific Errors in the Quran]] | *[[Scientific Errors in the Quran]] | ||
==External Links== | |||
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4IAPPvDs8qg Sherif Gaber - Are mountains like Pegs?] - ''YouTube Video'' | |||
*[https://atheism-vs-islam.com/index.php/hoaxes-of-the-quranic-miracles-and-predictions/66-muslim-claim-it-was-a-miracle-of-quran-to-tell-that-mountains-are-pegs Mountains are Pegs (Quranic Miracle turning into a huge Quranic Scientific Mistake)] - ''athiesm-vs-islam.com article on the subject'' | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||