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{{Quote|[https://unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/De-linking%20FGM%20from%20Islam%20final%20report.pdf 'Delinking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam'] by Ibrahim Lethome Asmani & Maryam Sheikh Abdi (2008)|'Shafi’i view it as wajib (obligatory) for both females and males'}} | {{Quote|[https://unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/De-linking%20FGM%20from%20Islam%20final%20report.pdf 'Delinking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam'] by Ibrahim Lethome Asmani & Maryam Sheikh Abdi (2008)|'Shafi’i view it as wajib (obligatory) for both females and males'}} | ||
'Reliance of the Traveller' by by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367) is the Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law according to Shafi'i School. {{Quote|''Reliance of the Traveler'' [''Umdat al-Salik''], Section e4.3 on Circumcision|'''Obligatory (on every male and female) is circumcision.''' (And it is the cutting-off of the skin [''qat' al-jaldah''] on the glans of the male member and, '''as for the circumcision of the female, that is the cutting-off of the clitoris')}} | 'Reliance of the Traveller' by by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367) is the Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law according to Shafi'i School. {{Quote|''Reliance of the Traveler'' [''Umdat al-Salik''], Section e4.3 on Circumcision|'''Obligatory (on every male and female) is circumcision.''' (And it is the cutting-off of the skin [''qat' al-jaldah''] on the glans of the male member and, '''as for the circumcision of the female, that is the cutting-off of the clitoris')}}Nuh Ha Mim Keller's 1991 translation of Reliance of the Traveller is bowdlerised to make its content more acceptable to Western eyes and translates the word 'bazr' ( بَظْرٌ ) as 'clitorial prepuce' instead of simply 'clitoris' (see section [[#Defining Bazr|Defining Bazr)]]. | ||
===Hanbali Madhab=== | ===Hanbali Madhab=== | ||
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'''(2009)''' ''“''[The Hadiths] ''require'' […] ''every woman be circumcised, failing which she will be impure and not even able to handle food. Why, moreover, wish to forbid female circumcision in a country made up of 90% Moslems?”'' Abou Ly (l’Association des imams et oulémas du Sénégal), quoted and translated from “[https://pointdebasculecanada.ca/quand-les-savants-musulmans-justifient-les-mutilations-genitales-feminines/ Quand les «savants musulmans» justifient les mutilations génitales féminines]” | '''(2009)''' ''“''[The Hadiths] ''require'' […] ''every woman be circumcised, failing which she will be impure and not even able to handle food. Why, moreover, wish to forbid female circumcision in a country made up of 90% Moslems?”'' Abou Ly (l’Association des imams et oulémas du Sénégal), quoted and translated from “[https://pointdebasculecanada.ca/quand-les-savants-musulmans-justifient-les-mutilations-genitales-feminines/ Quand les «savants musulmans» justifient les mutilations génitales féminines]” | ||
[[File:Fgmflyer-mozlem-brotherhood.jpg|thumb|Muslim Brotherhood flyer promoting FGM (amongst other medical services)]] | |||
'''(2012)''' “''The second strategy of the'' [Moslem Brotherhood] ''to contest the undesirability of FGM is to present it as a medical operation or procedure. By doing so, they encourage people to go to doctors – rather than midwives – who will perform the “operation” under anaesthesia and in accordance with proper surgical procedures'' […] ''Some people talk about taking their daughters to the doctor to check whether “they need it or not”, as if there is a physiological condition that would justify mutilating a woman’s reproductive organs'' […] ''Some doctors believe that not circumcising females leads to sexual arousal and that this could lead to the committing unlawful acts. So circumcision is a duty for the protection of the honour of the believing woman and for the preservation of her chastity and purit''y […] ''The third strategy deployed by the Brothers to promote FGM is to push for its decriminalization, under the premise that it is a matter that should be left to the personal choice of the girls’ guardians'' […] ''“the decision is up to the guardian and the doctor who decides on the extent to which the girl needs this operation”"'' [https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/mutilating-bodies-muslim-brotherhoods-gift-to-egyptian-women/ Mutilating bodies: the Muslim Brotherhood’s gift to Egyptian women] | '''(2012)''' “''The second strategy of the'' [Moslem Brotherhood] ''to contest the undesirability of FGM is to present it as a medical operation or procedure. By doing so, they encourage people to go to doctors – rather than midwives – who will perform the “operation” under anaesthesia and in accordance with proper surgical procedures'' […] ''Some people talk about taking their daughters to the doctor to check whether “they need it or not”, as if there is a physiological condition that would justify mutilating a woman’s reproductive organs'' […] ''Some doctors believe that not circumcising females leads to sexual arousal and that this could lead to the committing unlawful acts. So circumcision is a duty for the protection of the honour of the believing woman and for the preservation of her chastity and purit''y […] ''The third strategy deployed by the Brothers to promote FGM is to push for its decriminalization, under the premise that it is a matter that should be left to the personal choice of the girls’ guardians'' […] ''“the decision is up to the guardian and the doctor who decides on the extent to which the girl needs this operation”"'' [https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/mutilating-bodies-muslim-brotherhoods-gift-to-egyptian-women/ Mutilating bodies: the Muslim Brotherhood’s gift to Egyptian women] | ||
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'''There are reports''' that some Egyptian mummies show signs of FGC. However this appears to be disputed. | '''There are reports''' that some Egyptian mummies show signs of FGC. However this appears to be disputed. | ||
{{Quote|[https://www.scribd.com/document/317447900/Female-Genital-Mutilation-Cutting Salima Ikram, professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo, told to Discovery News.]|“This was not common practice in ancient Egypt. There is no physical evidence in mummies, neither there is anything in the art or literature. It probably originated in sub-saharan Africa, and was adopted here later on,”}} | {{Quote|[https://www.scribd.com/document/317447900/Female-Genital-Mutilation-Cutting Salima Ikram, professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo, told to Discovery News.]|“This was not common practice in ancient Egypt. There is no physical evidence in mummies, neither there is anything in the art or literature. It probably originated in sub-saharan Africa, and was adopted here later on,”}} | ||
[[File:Glyph1.jpg|thumb|spell or prayer found on an Egyptian coffin dating from sometime between 1991–1786 BC ]] | |||
'''A spell or prayer''' found on an Egyptian coffin dating from sometime between 1991–1786 BC appears to refer to an uncircumcised girl. | '''A spell or prayer''' found on an Egyptian coffin dating from sometime between 1991–1786 BC appears to refer to an uncircumcised girl. | ||
{{Quote||“But if a man wants to know how to live, he should recite it [a magical spell] every day, after his flesh has been rubbed with the b3d [unknown substance] of an uncircumcised girl [‘m’t] and the flakes of skin of an uncircumcised bald man.”}} | {{Quote||“But if a man wants to know how to live, he should recite it [a magical spell] every day, after his flesh has been rubbed with the b3d [unknown substance] of an uncircumcised girl [‘m’t] and the flakes of skin of an uncircumcised bald man.”}} | ||
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'''A fragment referring''' to a fifth-century B.C. history by Xanthos of Lydia (Western Asiatic Turkey) uses the word 'castrated' in relation to women. I may refer to FGM, or some method of permanently sterilizing women. | '''A fragment referring''' to a fifth-century B.C. history by Xanthos of Lydia (Western Asiatic Turkey) uses the word 'castrated' in relation to women. I may refer to FGM, or some method of permanently sterilizing women. | ||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3080631?seq=1 Mary Knight - 'Curing Cut or Ritual Mutilation?: Some remarks on the Practice of Female and Male Circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt' (2001)]|2='The Lydians arrived at such a state of delicacy that they were even the first to “castrate” their women … Thus Xanthos says in his second book on the Lydians that Adramytes, the king of the Lydians, castrating the women, used them instead of male eunuchs…. In the second book, he reports that Gyges, the king of the Lydians, was the first who “castrated” women, so that he might use them while they would remain forever youthful.'}} | {{Quote|1=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3080631?seq=1 Mary Knight - 'Curing Cut or Ritual Mutilation?: Some remarks on the Practice of Female and Male Circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt' (2001)]|2='The Lydians arrived at such a state of delicacy that they were even the first to “castrate” their women … Thus Xanthos says in his second book on the Lydians that Adramytes, the king of the Lydians, castrating the women, used them instead of male eunuchs…. In the second book, he reports that Gyges, the king of the Lydians, was the first who “castrated” women, so that he might use them while they would remain forever youthful.'}} | ||
'''There are several classical | '''There are several classical references from the geographer Agatharchides of Cnidus (fl. 2nd century BC., who identified a tribe living on the west coast of the Red Sea which excised their women in the manner of the Egyptians, and that another group cut of in infancy with razors the whole portion that others circumcise'.'' <ref>[https://www.amazon.com/Agatharchides-Cnidus-Erythraean-Hakluyt-Society/dp/090418028X 'Agatharchides of Cnidus: On the Erythraean Sea' by Stanley M. Burstein]</ref> | ||
'''A papyrus dated''' from 163 BC refers to the operation being performed on girls in Memphis, Egypt, to coincide with the time when they received their dowries. | '''A papyrus dated''' from 163 BC refers to the operation being performed on girls in Memphis, Egypt, to coincide with the time when they received their dowries. | ||
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The previous section shows that FGM existed before Islam. The fact that FGM can exist without it being justified by religious doctrine suggests that it may also have social causes. In the modern world, the most notable examples of FGM being practiced without religious justification is the FGM practiced by the Emberá people of South America<ref>[https://www.panoramas.pitt.edu/health-and-society/eliminating-fgm-embera-tribes-story Eliminating FGM: The Embera Tribe's Story]</ref> and the initiation rituals of the Liberian Sandé<ref>[https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/54bcdf574.pdf Country Profile: FGM in Liberia, December 2014]</ref> (though both arguably have their roots in the Islamic slave trade). There is also the analogous practice of Chinese footbinding, which was essentially secular. | The previous section shows that FGM existed before Islam. The fact that FGM can exist without it being justified by religious doctrine suggests that it may also have social causes. In the modern world, the most notable examples of FGM being practiced without religious justification is the FGM practiced by the Emberá people of South America<ref>[https://www.panoramas.pitt.edu/health-and-society/eliminating-fgm-embera-tribes-story Eliminating FGM: The Embera Tribe's Story]</ref> and the initiation rituals of the Liberian Sandé<ref>[https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/54bcdf574.pdf Country Profile: FGM in Liberia, December 2014]</ref> (though both arguably have their roots in the Islamic slave trade). There is also the analogous practice of Chinese footbinding, which was essentially secular. | ||
Much of what follows in this section is based on the work of Gerry Mackie, who has conducted insightful work into the social origins of FGM, using comparative-historical sociology and game theory. <ref>[http://webarchiv.ethz.ch/soms/teaching/OppFall09/MackieFootbinding.pdf Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account - Gerry Mackie]</ref> Mackie identifies the roots of FGM as lying in polygyny, particularly the kind of extreme polygyny that existed at the heart of empires, where some men could become powerful and wealthy enough to be able to afford harems of hundreds of concubines (the word 'concubine' is a euphemism for sex-slave). Polygyny is the norm with humanity - approximately 85% of societies in the anthropological record permit men to marry multiple wives<ref>'[https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.2011.0290 The puzzle of monogamous marriage' Joseph Henrich et al.]</ref>. Although our first human ancestors were probably monogamous, once the accumulation and displacement of wealth became possible, powerful men started also accumulating wives. | Much of what follows in this section is based on the work of Gerry Mackie, who has conducted insightful work into the social origins of FGM, using comparative-historical sociology and game theory. <ref>[http://webarchiv.ethz.ch/soms/teaching/OppFall09/MackieFootbinding.pdf Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account - Gerry Mackie]</ref> Mackie identifies the roots of FGM as lying in polygyny, particularly the kind of extreme polygyny that existed at the heart of empires, where some men could become powerful and wealthy enough to be able to afford harems of hundreds of concubines (the word 'concubine' is a euphemism for sex-slave). Polygyny is the norm with humanity - approximately 85% of societies in the anthropological record permit men to marry multiple wives<ref>'[https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.2011.0290 The puzzle of monogamous marriage' Joseph Henrich et al.]</ref>. Although our first human ancestors were probably monogamous, once the accumulation and displacement of wealth became possible, powerful men started also accumulating wives. | ||
[[File:Polygamy-fgm.jpg|thumb|maps showing distribution of polygamy (its legal status and/or its practice) and the distribution of FGM]] | |||
In polygynous societies it is only rich and high-status men who are able to afford to keep multiple wives. However, these high-status polygynous men face a problem guaranteeing the fidelity of their many wives - and the more wives they have the greater that problem becomes. In a monogamous marriage, by comparison, a husband and wife can spend much time together (and thus better monitor each others fidelity), become close to one another, and their sexual and emotional needs and capacity are more-or-less proportional. A polygynous man may have anything from two to a thousand 'concubines' (note that Islamic law, whilst limiting the number of wives a man can have, places no limit on the number of sex-slaves a man can own), whom he must satisfy emotionally and sexually, keep faithful, and whose desire for motherhood he must also satisfy. If the needs of his wive's are not satisfied, they will be tempted be unfaithful, and this may result in the high-status man rearing children that are not his own. | In polygynous societies it is only rich and high-status men who are able to afford to keep multiple wives. However, these high-status polygynous men face a problem guaranteeing the fidelity of their many wives - and the more wives they have the greater that problem becomes. In a monogamous marriage, by comparison, a husband and wife can spend much time together (and thus better monitor each others fidelity), become close to one another, and their sexual and emotional needs and capacity are more-or-less proportional. A polygynous man may have anything from two to a thousand 'concubines' (note that Islamic law, whilst limiting the number of wives a man can have, places no limit on the number of sex-slaves a man can own), whom he must satisfy emotionally and sexually, keep faithful, and whose desire for motherhood he must also satisfy. If the needs of his wive's are not satisfied, they will be tempted be unfaithful, and this may result in the high-status man rearing children that are not his own. | ||
So, in order to assure themselves of the chastity and fidelity of their many wives, polygynous men have employed | So, in order to assure themselves of the chastity and fidelity of their many wives, polygynous men have employed practices which assure the chastity of wives and of potential wives. | ||
*'''harems''' - which keep 'concubines' locked away, guarded by eunuchs; | *'''harems''' - which keep 'concubines' locked away, guarded by eunuchs; | ||
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*'''FGM''' - which reduces a girl's capacity for sexual pleasure both physically (through the removal of the clitoris and labia) and mentally (through the effects of trauma). Infibulation also seals the girl's vaginal opening with a covering of skin, the penetration of which is extremely painful and which leads to severe hemorrhaging that is difficult to conceal. | *'''FGM''' - which reduces a girl's capacity for sexual pleasure both physically (through the removal of the clitoris and labia) and mentally (through the effects of trauma). Infibulation also seals the girl's vaginal opening with a covering of skin, the penetration of which is extremely painful and which leads to severe hemorrhaging that is difficult to conceal. | ||
Polygynous societies are extremely ''hypergynous'' (hypergyny is the urge for women to marry into higher strata of society). It is considered preferable to be the n<sup>th</sup> wife of a powerful polygynous man than the only wife of a poor man (indeed, in polygynous societies, having only one wife is considered somewhat shameful). This is because 1/ in polygynous societies marriages invariably involve the payment of a brideprice by the groom (or his family) to the bride (or her family), the brideprice from a rich man will be higher than from a poor man 2/ in monogamous societies, high-status man become unavailable (as husbands) once married, whereas in polygynous societies a married high-status man remains available 3/ polygynous societies are traditional and the only acceptable role for a girl to aspire to is to make a 'good' marriage. A woman can only aspire to a better life by marrying into wealth 4/ marriage to high status men is highly advantageous to the bride's family, who will benefit from the bride-price and from having a high-status male as a relative. | All polygynous societies engage in some form(s) of Chastity Assurance practices. Polygynous societies are extremely ''hypergynous'' (hypergyny is the urge for women to marry into higher strata of society). It is considered preferable to be the n<sup>th</sup> wife of a powerful polygynous man than the only wife of a poor man (indeed, in polygynous societies, having only one wife is considered somewhat shameful). This is because 1/ in polygynous societies marriages invariably involve the payment of a brideprice by the groom (or his family) to the bride (or her family), the brideprice from a rich man will be higher than from a poor man 2/ in monogamous societies, high-status man become unavailable (as husbands) once married, whereas in polygynous societies a married high-status man remains available 3/ polygynous societies are traditional and the only acceptable role for a girl to aspire to is to make a 'good' marriage. A woman can only aspire to a better life by marrying into wealth 4/ marriage to high status men is highly advantageous to the bride's family, who will benefit from the bride-price and from having a high-status male as a relative. | ||
To marry high status polygynous men the society's girls must meet their expectations and requirements. She, and her family must persuade the polygynous man that their daughter is 'pure', chaste and will be faithful to him. They demonstrate this by adopting (or having their daughter adopt) the Chastity Assurance practices required by that man, whether it be FGM or other practices in the above list. | To marry high status polygynous men the society's girls must meet their expectations and requirements. She, and her family must persuade the polygynous man that their daughter is 'pure', chaste and will be faithful to him. They demonstrate this by adopting (or having their daughter adopt) the Chastity Assurance practices required by that man, whether it be FGM or other practices in the above list. | ||