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This page addresses the question of why some people engage in Female Genital Mutilation, both today and throughout history.   
This page addresses the question of why some people engage in Female Genital Mutilation, both today and throughout history.   


Female Genital Mutilation (FGM for short) is commonly associated with Islam: recent data suggests that about 80% of FGM is carried out by Muslims<ref>https://fgmtruth.wordpress.com/what-percentage-of-global-fgm-are-moslems-responsible-for/</ref>, and that, considered globally, about 20% of Muslim females are subjected to the practice. It is tempting to conclude that Muslims engage in FGM because the Prophet Muhammad decreed favourably on the practice [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Female Genital Mutilation|in four hadiths]]. This conclusion is made all the more tempting by the fact that discussions as to whether or not FGM is Islamic are conducted as if the question were resolved simply by determining whether Muhammad decreed favourably (or otherwise) on FGM in the Sunnah and in the Qur'an.  
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM for short) is commonly associated with Islam: recent data suggests that about 80% of FGM is carried out by Muslims<ref>https://fgmtruth.wordpress.com/what-percentage-of-global-fgm-are-moslems-responsible-for/</ref>, and that, considered globally, about 20% of Muslim females are subjected to the practice. It is tempting to conclude that Muslims engage in FGM because the Prophet Muhammad decreed favourably on the practice [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Female Genital Mutilation|in four hadiths]], and other hadith show the Sahabah (Muhammad's companions) engaging in it. This conclusion is made all the more tempting by the fact that discussions as to whether or not FGM is Islamic are invariably conducted as if the question is to be resolved simply by determining whether Muhammad decreed favourably (or otherwise) on FGM in the Sunnah and in the Qur'an.  


But social phenomena don't only happen because powerful men decree them. Social phenomena can happen because other social phenomena cause them. Pollution increased in the 19th Century England because the Industrial revolution happened. It is unlikely that many 19<sup>th</sup> century industrialists ''intended'' their factories to increase pollution. But their factories ''did'' increase pollution, and did so reliably and predictably. We rightly consider certain forms of pollution as being an inherent property of 19<sup>th</sup> Century industrialism, despite it being an unintended by-product.   
But social phenomena rarely happen simply because powerful men decree them. Social phenomena can happen because other social phenomena cause them or create conditions propitious for them. For example, pollution increased in the 19th Century England because of the Industrial revolution. It is unlikely that many 19<sup>th</sup> century industrialists established their factories ''in order to create more pollution''. But their factories ''did'' increase pollution, and did so reliably and predictably. We therefore correctly consider certain forms of pollution as being an inherent property of 19<sup>th</sup> Century industrialism, despite it being an unintended by-product.   


Likewise, even if FGM were nowhere mentioned in the Sunnah, there is reason to think that Muslims would nevertheless be practicing FGM at a higher rate than non-Muslims, since Islam tends to reproduce the conditions that make FGM useful or necessary.   
Similarly, even if FGM were nowhere mentioned in the Sunnah, there is reason to think that Muslims would nevertheless engage in FGM at a higher rate than non-Muslims, since Islam tends to reproduce conditions that make FGM useful or necessary.   


The political scientist Gerry Mackie, in his paper ''‘Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account'''<ref>http://webarchiv.ethz.ch/soms/teaching/OppFall09/MackieFootbinding.pdf</ref> identifies polygyny as creating conditions in which Chastity and Fidelity Assurance Practices solve real problems faced by girls, the parents of girls, and other members of the community. Chastity and Fidelity Assurance practices are technologies, institutions and behaviours that act to preserve the sexual purity (whether actual or reputational) of girls and women. Examples of Chastity Assurance practices are footbinding, veiling, gender segregation, arranged marriages, child marriage, chaperoning, 'honour' culture, brideprice ([[Mahr (Marital Price)|mahr]]) and FGM.   
The political scientist Gerry Mackie, in his paper ''‘Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account'''<ref>http://webarchiv.ethz.ch/soms/teaching/OppFall09/MackieFootbinding.pdf</ref> identifies polygyny as creating problems which are solved with chastity and fidelity-assurance Practices. These are technologies, institutions and behaviours that act to enforce and preserve the sexual purity (whether actual or perceived) of girls and women. Examples of chastity assurance practices are footbinding, veiling, gender segregation, arranged marriages, child marriage, chaperoning, 'honour' culture, brideprice ([[Mahr (Marital Price)|mahr]]) and FGM.   


Gerry Mackie makes no reference to the decrees of powerful men or prophets in his analysis of how polygyny gives rise to Chastity and Fidelity Assurance practices; likewise his explanation of how such practices become 'locked-in' - persisting long after the originating conditions have lapsed. Mackie's work demonstrates that FGM is not caused not only by Muhammad's decrees, but also by social factors - laws, traditions, institutions, systems, beliefs - that make FGM in some way 'useful' or 'necessary'.   
Gerry Mackie makes no reference to the decrees of powerful men or prophets in his analysis; nor in his explanation of how such practices become 'locked-in' - persisting long after the originating conditions have lapsed. Whilst Mackie avoids touching on Islam ''per se'', his work demonstrates that FGM is caused not only by Muhammad's decrees, but also by social factors - laws, traditions, institutions, systems, beliefs - that make FGM in some way 'useful' or 'necessary'.   


In brief: there are two     
In brief: there are two     


*it is a practice that solves certain problems caused by polygyny;
*it is a practice that solves certain problems caused by polygyny;
*Muhammad, in inventing Islam, codified and sacralisied the norms, values, beliefs and institutions of Medina under his rule (and to a lesser extent of pre-Islamic Mecca and Judaism). This included the sacralisation of FGM and the causes of FGM - polygyny in particular. In doing this he ensured that FGM and its causes would persist long after they would normally have disappeared.
*


==Who Practices FGM? Statistics==
==Who Practices FGM? Statistics==
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==Islam as the sacralisation of polygyny and its consequences==
==Islam as the sacralisation of polygyny and its consequences==
Muhammad, in inventing Islam, codified and sacralisied the norms, values, beliefs and institutions of Medina under his rule (and to a lesser extent of pre-Islamic Mecca and Judaism). This included the sacralisation of FGM and the causes of FGM - polygyny in particular. In doing this he ensured that FGM and its causes would persist long after they would normally have disappeared.


==FGM: a Solution to Problems Caused by Islamic Doctrine==
==FGM: a Solution to Problems Caused by Islamic Doctrine==
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