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List of expeditions of Muhammad (view source)
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The '''List of expeditions of Muhammad''', also includes a '''list of battles by Muhammad's order''' and comprises information about casualties, objectives, and nature of the military expeditions ordered by [[Muhammad]], as well as the primary sources which mention the Battles. | The '''List of expeditions of Muhammad''', also includes a '''list of battles by Muhammad's order''' and comprises information about casualties, objectives, and nature of the military expeditions ordered by [[Muhammad]], as well as the primary sources which mention the Battles. While the term ghazwa is typically translated "expedition" (even in this article), it was sometimes used in a non-military sense, for example the 'Umrah pilgrimage which appears in the list below. A ghazwa (pl. ghazawat) is an expedition in which Muhammad himself participated, while a sariyyah (pl. saraya) is an expedition sent out by Muhammad but led by a companion. | ||
==The sῑra-maghāzī literature== | ==The sῑra-maghāzī literature== | ||
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Academic scholars have determined that the later material is unreliable for a variety of reasons, though has some historical value when treated cautiously. Regarding the expedition literature generally, Professor Sean Anthony has argued in his book ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'' that the initial, formative compilation of this material took impulse from the late Umayyad court (late 7th/early 8th century CE). The corpus of traditions existed independently of the court, but their formation into sῑra-maghāzī works was a product of political intervention. Anthony contends that "the rhetoric of empire in Late Antiquity profoundly shaped this corpus".<ref>Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 175-6</ref> | Academic scholars have determined that the later material is unreliable for a variety of reasons, though has some historical value when treated cautiously. Regarding the expedition literature generally, Professor Sean Anthony has argued in his book ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'' that the initial, formative compilation of this material took impulse from the late Umayyad court (late 7th/early 8th century CE). The corpus of traditions existed independently of the court, but their formation into sῑra-maghāzī works was a product of political intervention. Anthony contends that "the rhetoric of empire in Late Antiquity profoundly shaped this corpus".<ref>Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 175-6</ref> | ||
The hadith and sῑra-maghāzī literature speak frequently of the dominion (mulk) of the prophet and his community (ummah). This triumphalist view of the emergence of the early Islamic community "served to sustain and legitimize that community's hegemony, the supremacy of its ruling elite, and the expansionist policy of the burgeoning polity."<ref>Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'', p. 177</ref> | The hadith and sῑra-maghāzī literature speak frequently of the dominion (mulk) of the prophet and his community (ummah). This triumphalist view of the emergence of the early Islamic community "served to sustain and legitimize that community's hegemony, the supremacy of its ruling elite, and the expansionist policy of the burgeoning polity."<ref>Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'', p. 177</ref> An open access book chapter by Adrien de Jarmy identifies a gradual trend in the historical development of the sirah genre towards Muhammad being portrayed as a "warrior-prophet".<ref>Adrien de Jarmy, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv29sfq7f.9?seq=17#metadata_info_tab_contents Dating the Emergence of the Warrior-Prophet in Maghāzī Literature: Second/Eighth to the Fourth/Tenth Century.] in The Presence of the Prophet in Early Modern and Contemporary Islam: Volume 1, The Prophet Between Doctrine, Literature and Arts: Historical Legacies and Their Unfolding, edited by Denis Gril et al., Brill, 2022, pp. 79–99.</ref> | ||
A source which stands out as more significant are the letters of 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr, the nephew of Aisha. A series of letters from 'Urwa to the late Umayyad court in answer to various historical queries are preserved in the work of al-Tabari, while some narratives therefrom also appear in other sources. More information and a summary of the relevant letters is given in the article [[Jihad in Islamic Law]] and they are translated in full in chapter four of Anthony's book. For a number of reasons these letters are considered more credible than later sources, and detail a small number of raids and battles: the raid on Nakhlah, the battle of Badr, the conquest of Mecca, the battle of Hunayn and the seige of al-Ta'if. Other significant conflicts which many academic scholars consider to credibly have some historicity but which are not mentioned by 'Urwa are Uhud, Banu Mustaliq, the Ditch, Banu Qurayza, and Khaybar. It may be noted that 'Urwa's letters respond to specific questions about historical events, so we should not expect them to be a comprehensive list of all expeditions undertaken or ordered by Muhammad. | A source which stands out as more significant are the letters of 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr, the nephew of Aisha. A series of letters from 'Urwa to the late Umayyad court in answer to various historical queries are preserved in the work of al-Tabari, while some narratives therefrom also appear in other sources. More information and a summary of the relevant letters is given in the article [[Jihad in Islamic Law]] and they are translated in full in chapter four of Anthony's book. For a number of reasons these letters are considered more credible than later sources, and detail a small number of raids and battles: the raid on Nakhlah, the battle of Badr, the conquest of Mecca, the battle of Hunayn and the seige of al-Ta'if. Other significant conflicts which many academic scholars consider to credibly have some historicity but which are not mentioned by 'Urwa in his letters are Uhud, Banu Mustaliq, the Ditch, Banu Qurayza, and Khaybar. It may be noted that 'Urwa's letters respond to specific questions about historical events, so we should not expect them to be a comprehensive list of all expeditions undertaken or ordered by Muhammad. | ||
'Urwa also narrates in his first letter the two forced migrations from Mecca faced by the believers following persecutions | 'Urwa also narrates in his first letter the two forced migrations from Mecca faced by the believers following persecutions which he calls the first and final fitnahs, in the first case to Abyssinia, and the second time to Medina. Bearing in mind this context, Islamic modernist scholars argue that the most well evidenced expeditions are in line with the Quranic principles that fighting is in self-defense or pre-emptive (or more specifically, for proportionate retaliation or to stop religious persecution - see the discussion in the article [[Jihad in Islamic Law]]). This view is of course contested by other Islamic and academic scholars. | ||
==List of Expeditions== | ==List of Expeditions== | ||
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! style="background: pink;" |4 | ! style="background: pink;" |4 | ||
|Invasion of Waddan | |Invasion of Waddan | ||
|August 623 <ref name=" | |August 623 <ref name="autogeneratedz">{{cite book|last=Sa'd|first=Ibn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_vnXAAAAMAAJ&q|title=Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2|year=1967|publisher=Pakistan Historical Society|asin=B0007JAWMK|page=4|quote=GHAZWAH OF AL-ABWA* Then (occurred) the ghazwah of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him, at al-Abwa in Safar (August 623 AC)}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=The foundation of the community |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ctvk-fdtklYC&pg=PA12|first= Al|last= Tabari |year= 2008| publisher = State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0887063442|page=12|quote=In Safar (which began August 4, 623), nearly twelve months after his arrival in Medina on the twelfth of Rabi' al- Awwal, he went out on a raid as far as Waddan}}</ref> | ||
|Attack a Quraysh caravan which included camels<ref name="Wahhab p. 345" /><ref name=" | |Attack a Quraysh caravan which included camels<ref name="Wahhab p. 345" /><ref name="autogeneratedz" /> | ||
| | | | ||
*Unknown | *Unknown | ||
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|April 631 <ref name="Muir August 1878 219">{{citation|title=The life of Mahomet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTwBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA219|first=William|last=Muir|publisher=Smith, Elder and co|year=1861|page=219|quote= Beginning of A.H. X}} Note: Muharram is the beginning of the year, then Muharram 10AH= April 631</ref><ref name="Jandora 1990 42">{{citation|title=The march from Medina: a revisionist study of the Arab conquests|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozVtAAAAMAAJ&q=Surad|first=John Walter|last=Jandora|year=1990|publisher=Kingston Press, Original from: University of Michigan|page=42|isbn=9780940670334}}</ref> | |April 631 <ref name="Muir August 1878 219">{{citation|title=The life of Mahomet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTwBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA219|first=William|last=Muir|publisher=Smith, Elder and co|year=1861|page=219|quote= Beginning of A.H. X}} Note: Muharram is the beginning of the year, then Muharram 10AH= April 631</ref><ref name="Jandora 1990 42">{{citation|title=The march from Medina: a revisionist study of the Arab conquests|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozVtAAAAMAAJ&q=Surad|first=John Walter|last=Jandora|year=1990|publisher=Kingston Press, Original from: University of Michigan|page=42|isbn=9780940670334}}</ref> | ||
|Ordered Surad ibn Abdullah (new convert) to war against the non-Muslim tribes in his neighbourhood<ref name="Muir August 1878 219" | |Ordered Surad ibn Abdullah (new convert) to war against the non-Muslim tribes in his neighbourhood<ref name="Muir August 1878 219" /> | ||
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*Heavy casualties, people of Jurash killed<ref name="Tabari 25 Sep 1990 88–89">{{citation|title=The last years of the Prophet (translated by Isma’il Qurban Husayn)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxG8BsHNw-MC&printsec=frontcover| first=Al|last=Tabari|year=25 Sep 1990|publisher=State University of New York Press|pages=88–89}}</ref> | *Heavy casualties, people of Jurash killed<ref name="Tabari 25 Sep 1990 88–89">{{citation|title=The last years of the Prophet (translated by Isma’il Qurban Husayn)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxG8BsHNw-MC&printsec=frontcover| first=Al|last=Tabari|year=25 Sep 1990|publisher=State University of New York Press|pages=88–89}}</ref> | ||
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! style="background: #EEEEEE;" |99 | ! style="background: #EEEEEE;" |99 | ||
|Demolition of Dhul Khalasa | |Demolition of Dhul Khalasa | ||
|April 632 <ref name="Muir August 1878 | |April 632 <ref name="Muir August 1878 219b">{{citation|title=The life of Mahomet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTwBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA219|first=William|last=Muir|publisher=Smith, Elder and co|year=1861|page=219|quote=April and May, 632}}</ref> | ||
|Demolish the Temple of Dhul Khalasa worshipped by the Bajila and Khatham tribes<ref name="Glasse 28 Jan 2003 251">{{cite book |title= The new encyclopedia of Islam| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA251| first= Cyril| last= Glasse | year = 28 Jan 2003 | publisher = AltaMira Press | place = US |isbn=978-0759101906|page=251}}</ref> | |Demolish the Temple of Dhul Khalasa worshipped by the Bajila and Khatham tribes<ref name="Glasse 28 Jan 2003 251">{{cite book |title= The new encyclopedia of Islam| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA251| first= Cyril| last= Glasse | year = 28 Jan 2003 | publisher = AltaMira Press | place = US |isbn=978-0759101906|page=251}}</ref> | ||