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The | The Caliph (خليفة; khalīfah) is the head of state in a '''Caliphate''', and the title for the leader of the Islamic [[Ummah]] (body of Muslim believers) who serves as the successor to [[Muhammad]], the founder of [[Islam]], in all matters of political and religious decision making. The word of the caliph is, however, only legally and not theologically binding upon members of the Muslim ummah who consider him legitimate. | ||
==Government== | ==Government== | ||
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===Upon Muhammad's death (632)=== | ===Upon Muhammad's death (632)=== | ||
According to the [[ | According to the [[hadith]], the ''Muhajirun'' and ''Ansar'' of [[Medina]] got together separately to ascertain a leader to take Muhammad's place shortly after [[Muhammad's Death|Muhammad's death]]. Abu Bakr and Umar, however, decided that these separate efforts to appoint a leader would lead to infighting, and thus Abu Bakr suggested to the entire assembly of Medinans either Umar or Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah be made leader. When the Medinans refused to make a choice between these two, Umar declared his allegiance to Abu Bakr as caliph. The Medinans present, it is said, then followed suit. | ||
It is also reported that upon Abu Bakr's designation as caliph, [[Ali]] refused to accept Abu Bakr as the caliph, presumably preferring that he himself, as son-in-law and cousin of Muhammad, be appointed caliph instead. Ultimately, Umar confronted Ali, perhaps physically, and extracted his allegiance. | It is also reported that upon Abu Bakr's designation as caliph, [[Ali]] refused to accept Abu Bakr as the caliph, presumably preferring that he himself, as son-in-law and cousin of Muhammad, be appointed caliph instead. Ultimately, Umar confronted Ali, perhaps physically, and extracted his allegiance. | ||
===The Rightly Guided Caliphs, or ''al-Khulafa al-Rashidun'' (632-661)=== | ===The Rightly Guided Caliphs, or ''al-Khulafa al-Rashidun'' (632-661)=== | ||
{{Main|Rashidun Caliphs}} | |||
According to Islamic theology, the first four successors of Prophet [[Muhammad]] were the "Rightly-Guided Caliphs" (Khulafaa-e-Rashidun). They were all [[Sahabah]]s (companions or apostles) who were extremely close to Muhammad, and are therefore considered by Muslims to be model Islamic leaders who ruled in accord with the [[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah]].<ref>[http://www.sunniessentials.net/islam/introduction/Personalities_Caliphs.pdf The Four Rightly-Guided Caliphs of Islam] - Sunni Essentials, accessed October 2, 2010</ref> The first four Caliphs were; Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and [[Ali]]. | According to Islamic theology, the first four successors of Prophet [[Muhammad]] were the "Rightly-Guided Caliphs" (Khulafaa-e-Rashidun). They were all [[Sahabah]]s (companions or apostles) who were extremely close to Muhammad, and are therefore considered by Muslims to be model Islamic leaders who ruled in accord with the [[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah]].<ref>[http://www.sunniessentials.net/islam/introduction/Personalities_Caliphs.pdf The Four Rightly-Guided Caliphs of Islam] - Sunni Essentials, accessed October 2, 2010</ref> The first four Caliphs were; Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and [[Ali]]. | ||
Abu Bakr ruled for two years before dying of natural causes in 634. Umar, Uthman, and Ali were all assassinated by political oppositionists, with Ali's stint as caliph ending in a 5-year civil war that left thousands dead and gave rise to a group that would later become the [[Shi' | Abu Bakr ruled for two years before dying of natural causes in 634. Umar, Uthman, and Ali were all assassinated by political oppositionists, with Ali's stint as caliph ending in a 5-year civil war that left thousands dead and gave rise to a group that would later become the [[Shi'ism]] sect of Islam. | ||
During the Rashidun caliphate, the Islamic empire grew from comprising just the Arabian peninsula during Muhammad's life, to comprising modern day Iran, part of modern day Turkey and the Caucasus, as well as well as lower Egypt and the northern part of modern day Libya. | During the Rashidun caliphate, the Islamic empire grew from comprising just the Arabian peninsula during Muhammad's life, to comprising modern day Iran, part of modern day Turkey and the Caucasus, as well as well as lower Egypt and the northern part of modern day Libya. | ||
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===Abbasid caliphate (750-1258)=== | ===Abbasid caliphate (750-1258)=== | ||
The Abbasid overthrow of the Umayyads ushered in the Islamic Golden Age, especially as the rationalist heresy of the Mu'tazilites became culturally dominant and as the ruling Abbasids themselves participated in and encouraged this heresy. The rationalists' obsession with knowledge and reason directly motivated the Mu'tazilite ruler al-Ma'mun (ruling from 813-833) to both found the famous House of Wisdom (''Bayt al-Hikmah'') in Baghdad, fund the works of scientists like [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|al-Khwarizmi]], and begin an inquisition (''mihna'') against the traditionalist, and even anti-intellectual movement that would later become orthodox Sunni Islam and bring an end to the scientific and philosophical flourishing of the Islamic world as a result of the sort of dogmatism that would define the lives and works of [[Al-Ghazali]] (d. 1111) and [[Ibn | The Abbasid overthrow of the Umayyads ushered in the Islamic Golden Age, especially as the rationalist heresy of the Mu'tazilites became culturally dominant and as the ruling Abbasids themselves participated in and encouraged this heresy. The rationalists' obsession with knowledge and reason directly motivated the Mu'tazilite ruler al-Ma'mun (ruling from 813-833) to both found the famous House of Wisdom (''Bayt al-Hikmah'') in Baghdad, fund the works of scientists like [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|al-Khwarizmi]], and begin an inquisition (''mihna'') against the traditionalist, and even anti-intellectual movement that would later become orthodox Sunni Islam and bring an end to the scientific and philosophical flourishing of the Islamic world as a result of the sort of dogmatism that would define the lives and works of [[Al-Ghazali]] (d. 1111) and [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] (d. 1328) a few centuries later. By the 1250s, however, the once-loyal Mamluk members of the Abbasid military would take control of Egypt, and in 1258, Baghdad would be sacked, bringing an end to the original Abbasid caliphate. | ||
====Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo (1261-1517)==== | ====Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo (1261-1517)==== | ||
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===Fatimid caliphate (909-1171)=== | ===Fatimid caliphate (909-1171)=== | ||
The Isma'ili, [[Shi' | The Isma'ili, [[Shi'ism]] Fatima caliphate, from its base and capital in Mahdia, Tunisia, ultimately came to rule the entire northern coast of the African continent as well as lower Egypt (where caliphate later established its capital in Cairo), modern day Morocco, parts of Syria and the Arabian peninsula, and Sicily. | ||
The caliphs of the Fatimid dynasty where also the holy Imams of the Isma'ili Shi'ites. These Imams were the descendants of Ali via his wife Fatima (also the daughter of Muhammad, making the Imams direct descendants of ''both'' Muhammad and Ali), hence the name of the caliphate. | The caliphs of the Fatimid dynasty where also the holy Imams of the Isma'ili Shi'ites. These Imams were the descendants of Ali via his wife Fatima (also the daughter of Muhammad, making the Imams direct descendants of ''both'' Muhammad and Ali), hence the name of the caliphate. | ||
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Following brief instability, from 1556 to 1605, the Mughal empire was ruled by Akbar, who was responsible for conquering almost all of India and for modernizing the empire's adminstration. Akbar was even more famous for his tolerant domestic policy whereby, despite his Islamic faith, he did not [[Dhimmitude|prosecute or diminish]] non-Muslims nor especially pagan subjects such as the Hindus. Akbar was so fundamentally cosmopolitan, in fact, that he started his own religion by merging favorable elements of several religions, including Hinduism and Islam, to produce a syncretic religion which he dubbed ''Din-e-ilahi'', or "Divine Faith", which epitomized tolerance and whose hallmark was the idea that no one religion could alone be true. Akbar would oversee the prime era of the Mughals. | Following brief instability, from 1556 to 1605, the Mughal empire was ruled by Akbar, who was responsible for conquering almost all of India and for modernizing the empire's adminstration. Akbar was even more famous for his tolerant domestic policy whereby, despite his Islamic faith, he did not [[Dhimmitude|prosecute or diminish]] non-Muslims nor especially pagan subjects such as the Hindus. Akbar was so fundamentally cosmopolitan, in fact, that he started his own religion by merging favorable elements of several religions, including Hinduism and Islam, to produce a syncretic religion which he dubbed ''Din-e-ilahi'', or "Divine Faith", which epitomized tolerance and whose hallmark was the idea that no one religion could alone be true. Akbar would oversee the prime era of the Mughals. | ||
Subsequently, from 1658 to 1707, the Mughal empire would be ruled by Akbar's great-grandson, Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb seized the throne from his brother (also the rightful heir), Dara Shikoh, in 1658 and had Dara executed in order to preserve his power (the practice of executing competing claimants to the throne was a relatively common practice throughout the history of Islamic empires, and found sanction in [[Islamic Law|Islamic law]], or [[Shariah]]). Aurangzeb likewise imprisoned his father, Shah Jahan, following Dara's execution. Aurangzeb was a strong supporter of Islamic orthodoxy, saw the Shariah implemented throughout the entirety of the Mughal empire, and undid much of the tolerant and syncretic reforms brought about by his great-grandfather, Akbar. This period in the empire's history also saw India's grow into the most productive economy in the world, and would see Aurangzeb conquer almost the entirety of South Asia. | Subsequently, from 1658 to 1707, the Mughal empire would be ruled by Akbar's great-grandson, Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb seized the throne from his brother (also the rightful heir), Dara Shikoh, in 1658 and had Dara executed in order to preserve his power (the practice of executing competing claimants to the throne was a relatively common practice throughout the history of Islamic empires, and found sanction in [[Islamic Law|Islamic law]], or [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shariah]])<ref>{{Muslim|20|4568|}} "It has been narrated on the authority of Aba Sa'id al-Khudri that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
When oath of allegiance has been taken for two caliphs, kill the one for whom the oath was taken later."</ref>. Aurangzeb likewise imprisoned his father, Shah Jahan, following Dara's execution. Aurangzeb was a strong supporter of Islamic orthodoxy, saw the Shariah implemented throughout the entirety of the Mughal empire, and undid much of the tolerant and syncretic reforms brought about by his great-grandfather, Akbar. This period in the empire's history also saw India's grow into the most productive economy in the world, and would see Aurangzeb conquer almost the entirety of South Asia. | |||
By 1707, however, the Mughal empire would experience widespread and open revolt, likely brought about by his strict Islamic regime. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his son Bahadur Shah I would attempt to stifle the emerging chaos by dismantling the religious policies created by Aurangzeb and revitalizing the empire's administration. These efforts, however, would prove to be too late, and the Mughal empire would enter an irreversible phase of decline. In the year 1719 alone, the seat of the emperor would change hands no less than four times. Subsequent futile attempts at restoration and reform would be made by Shah Alam from 1759 to 1806, but from this point the Mughal empire would begin to lose substantial chunks of lands to neighboring competitors. | By 1707, however, the Mughal empire would experience widespread and open revolt, likely brought about by his strict Islamic regime. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his son Bahadur Shah I would attempt to stifle the emerging chaos by dismantling the religious policies created by Aurangzeb and revitalizing the empire's administration. These efforts, however, would prove to be too late, and the Mughal empire would enter an irreversible phase of decline. In the year 1719 alone, the seat of the emperor would change hands no less than four times. Subsequent futile attempts at restoration and reform would be made by Shah Alam from 1759 to 1806, but from this point the Mughal empire would begin to lose substantial chunks of lands to neighboring competitors. | ||
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The Ottoman caliphate was officially abolished on March 3rd, 1924. | The Ottoman caliphate was officially abolished on March 3rd, 1924. | ||
== Relevant quotations == | ==Relevant quotations== | ||
=== Qur'an === | ===Qur'an=== | ||
{{Quote|{{quran|24|55}}|Allah hath promised such of you as believe and do good work that He will surely make them to succeed [<i>layastakhlifannahum</i>, or "we will make them <i>khalifahs</i>"] (the present rulers) in the earth even as He caused those who were before them to succeed (others); and that He will surely establish for them their religion which He hath approved for them, and will give them in exchange safety after their fear. They serve Me. They ascribe no thing as partner unto Me. Those who disbelieve henceforth, they are the miscreants.}}{{Quote|{{quran|2|30}}|And when thy Lord said unto the angels: Lo! I am about to place a viceroy [<i>khalifa</i>] in the earth, they said: Wilt thou place therein one who will do harm therein and will shed blood, while we, we hymn Thy praise and sanctify Thee? He said: Surely I know that which ye know not.}}{{Quote|{{quran|27|62}}|Is not He (best) Who answereth the wronged one when he crieth unto Him and removeth the evil, and hath made you viceroys [<i>khulafa</i>, the plural of "<i>khalifa</i>"] of the earth? Is there any Allah beside Allah? Little do they reflect!}}{{Quote|{{quran|5|44}}|Lo! We did reveal the Torah, wherein is guidance and a light, by which the prophets who surrendered (unto Allah) judged the Jews, and the rabbis and the priests (judged) by such of Allah's Scripture as they were bidden to observe, and thereunto were they witnesses. So fear not mankind, but fear Me. And barter not My revelations for a little gain. Whoso judgeth not by that which Allah hath revealed: such are disbelievers.}} | {{Quote|{{quran|24|55}}|Allah hath promised such of you as believe and do good work that He will surely make them to succeed [<i>layastakhlifannahum</i>, or "we will make them <i>khalifahs</i>"] (the present rulers) in the earth even as He caused those who were before them to succeed (others); and that He will surely establish for them their religion which He hath approved for them, and will give them in exchange safety after their fear. They serve Me. They ascribe no thing as partner unto Me. Those who disbelieve henceforth, they are the miscreants.}}{{Quote|{{quran|2|30}}|And when thy Lord said unto the angels: Lo! I am about to place a viceroy [<i>khalifa</i>] in the earth, they said: Wilt thou place therein one who will do harm therein and will shed blood, while we, we hymn Thy praise and sanctify Thee? He said: Surely I know that which ye know not.}}{{Quote|{{quran|27|62}}|Is not He (best) Who answereth the wronged one when he crieth unto Him and removeth the evil, and hath made you viceroys [<i>khulafa</i>, the plural of "<i>khalifa</i>"] of the earth? Is there any Allah beside Allah? Little do they reflect!}}{{Quote|{{quran|5|44}}|Lo! We did reveal the Torah, wherein is guidance and a light, by which the prophets who surrendered (unto Allah) judged the Jews, and the rabbis and the priests (judged) by such of Allah's Scripture as they were bidden to observe, and thereunto were they witnesses. So fear not mankind, but fear Me. And barter not My revelations for a little gain. Whoso judgeth not by that which Allah hath revealed: such are disbelievers.}} | ||
=== Hadith === | ===Hadith=== | ||
{{Quote|{{bukhari|4|52|204}} & {{Al Tirmidhi||5|39|4201}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: | {{Quote|{{bukhari|4|52|204}} & {{Al Tirmidhi||5|39|4201}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: | ||
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Salama b. Yazid al-ju'afi asked the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): Prophet of Allah, what do you think if we have rulers who rule over us and demand that we discharge our obligations towards them, but they (themselves) do not discharge their own responsibilities towards us? What do you order us to do? The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) avoided giving any answer. Salama asked him again. He (again) avoided giving any answer. Then he asked again-it was the second time or the third time-when Ash'ath b. Qais (finding that the Prophet was unnecessarily being pressed for answer) pulled him aside and said: Listen to them and obey them, for on them shall he their burden and on you shall be your burden.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim|20|4565}}|It has been narrated on the authority of 'Arfaja who said: | Salama b. Yazid al-ju'afi asked the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): Prophet of Allah, what do you think if we have rulers who rule over us and demand that we discharge our obligations towards them, but they (themselves) do not discharge their own responsibilities towards us? What do you order us to do? The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) avoided giving any answer. Salama asked him again. He (again) avoided giving any answer. Then he asked again-it was the second time or the third time-when Ash'ath b. Qais (finding that the Prophet was unnecessarily being pressed for answer) pulled him aside and said: Listen to them and obey them, for on them shall he their burden and on you shall be your burden.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim|20|4565}}|It has been narrated on the authority of 'Arfaja who said: | ||
I have heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: Different evils will make their appearance in the near future. Anyone who tries to disrupt the affairs of this Umma while they are united you should strike him with the sword whoever he be. (If remonstrance does not prevail with him and he does not desist from his disruptive activities, he is to be killed.)}} | I have heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: Different evils will make their appearance in the near future. Anyone who tries to disrupt the affairs of this Umma while they are united you should strike him with the sword whoever he be. (If remonstrance does not prevail with him and he does not desist from his disruptive activities, he is to be killed.)}}{{Quote|{{muslim|20|4568}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Aba Sa'id al-Khudri that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
{{ | When oath of allegiance has been taken for two caliphs, kill the one for whom the oath was taken later.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim|20|4569}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Umm Salama that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
*[[ | |||
In the near future there will be Amirs and you will like their good deeds and dislike their bad deeds. One who sees through their bad deeds (and tries to prevent their repetition by his band or through his speech), is absolved from blame, but one who hates their bad deeds (in the heart of his heart, being unable to prevent their recurrence by his hand or his tongue), is (also) fate (so far as God's wrath is concerned). But one who approves of their bad deeds and imitates them is spiritually ruined. People asked (the Holy Prophet): Shouldn't we fight against them? He replied: No, as long as they say their prayers.}}{{Quote|{{muslim|20|4597}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Ibn 'Abbas that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said on the day of the Conquest of Mecca: | |||
There is no Hijra now, but (only) Jihad (fighting for the cause of Islam) and sincerity of purpose (have great reward) ; when you are asked to set out (on an expedition undertaken for the cause of Islam) you should (readily) do so.}} | |||
== See also == | |||
* [[Rashidun Caliphs]] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Salaf al-Salih (Pious Predecessors)]] | ||
[[ru:Халиф]] | [[ru:Халиф]] | ||
[[Category:Fiqh (legal theory)]] | |||
[[Category:Caliphate]] | |||
[[Category:Society and human nature]] | |||
[[Category:Islamic History]] | |||
[[Category:Shari'ah (Islamic Law)]] | |||