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One of the major criticisms brought to bear against the [[Quran]], as well as the [[Hadith]], by both serious scholars and critics is that it reinforces historical misconceptions common among the Arab contemporaries of its 7th century author. While much effort has been exerted by modern Islamic scholars towards reconciling what appear to modern readers as blatant historical errors with the Islamic belief in the inerrancy of the Quran, their arguments have not yet won any assent outside their circles and are generally regarded as lacking rigor. It is important to note that modern Islamic scholars are not the first to note the contradictions between historical statements found in the Quran and the views of contemporary historians — in fact, even some classical Islamic scholars noted that there were certain historical claims in the Quran and hadith which, taken literally (as Islamic orthodoxy holds they should be), could not easily be reconciled with what they held to be basic and incontrovertible facts about history.
One of the major criticisms brought to bear against the [[Quran]], as well as the [[Hadith]], by both serious scholars and critics is that it reinforces historical misconceptions common among the Arab contemporaries of its 7th century author. While much effort has been exerted by modern Islamic scholars towards reconciling what appear to modern readers as blatant historical errors with the Islamic belief in the inerrancy of the Quran, their arguments have not yet won any assent outside their circles and are generally regarded as lacking rigor. It is important to note that modern Islamic scholars are not the first to note the contradictions between historical statements found in the Quran and the views of contemporary historians — in fact, even some classical Islamic scholars noted that there were certain historical claims in the Quran and hadith which, taken literally (as Islamic orthodoxy holds they should be), could not easily be reconciled with what they held to be basic and incontrovertible facts about history.
[[File:Hegra-tombs-UNESCO.jpg|right|thumb|Some of the 1st century CE Nabatean Tombs at the Hegra UNESCO world heritage site between Medina and Tabuk. The Quran mistakes these for homes and palaces built before the time of Pharaoh.]]


== Regarding ancient religious doctrine ==
== Regarding ancient religious doctrine ==
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===Ezra as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===
===Ezra as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===
Historically, Judaism has been a strict form of monotheism. The Quran, by contrast, describes the Jews as practitioners of polytheism by stating that they hold ''Uzair'' (Ezra) to be the son of God. This is compared directly with the Christian doctrine which hold Jesus to be the son of God. This appears to be a confusion resulting from conflating the alternative senses in which Jewish and Christian theologians have employed and understood the word "son".{{Quote|{{Quran|9|30}}|
Historically, Judaism has been a strict form of monotheism. The Quran, by contrast, describes the Jews as practitioners of polytheism by stating that they hold ''Uzair'' (Ezra) to be the son of God. This is compared directly with the Christian doctrine which hold Jesus to be the son of God. This appears to be a confusion resulting from conflating the alternative senses in which Jewish and Christian theologians have employed and understood the word "son".{{Quote|{{Quran|9|30}}|The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah "; and the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved [before them]. May Allah destroy them; how are they deluded?}}
The Jews call 'Uzair a son of Allah, and the Christians call Christ the son of Allah. That is a saying from their mouth; (in this) they but imitate what the unbelievers of old used to say. Allah's curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the Truth! }}


=== The afterlife in the Torah ===
=== The afterlife in the Torah ===
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</ref> While apologists argue the Torah has been corrupted, this corruption would have been enormous, happening across many different people in the community and different time periods to change such a fundamental aspect of the religion, with no clear reason as to why.  
</ref> While apologists argue the Torah has been corrupted, this corruption would have been enormous, happening across many different people in the community and different time periods to change such a fundamental aspect of the religion, with no clear reason as to why.  


This apologetic view also goes against scholarly consensus that ideas of rewards for the good and punishment for the evil only developed during Second-Temple Judaism, found in scriptures written centuries post the torah; particularly due to its interactions with the Hellenistic Greeks, and the theological problems of it's righteous members (Jews) dying and facing oppression for their belief for no reward.<ref>''[https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95914/1/BR2_Finney.pdf This is a repository copy of Afterlives of the Afterlife: The Development of Hell in its Jewish and Christian Contexts.]'' Finney, M.T. (2013) Afterlives of the Afterlife: The Development of Hell in its Jewish and Christian Contexts. In: Exum, J.C. and Clines, D.J.A., (eds.) Biblical Reception. Sheffield Phoenix Press , Sheffield . ISBN 978-1-907534-70-6
This apologetic view also goes against scholarly consensus that ideas of rewards for the good and punishment for the evil only developed during Second-Temple Judaism, found in scriptures written centuries post the torah; particularly due to its interactions with the Hellenistic Greeks, and the theological problems of its righteous members (Jews) dying and facing oppression for their belief for no reward.<ref>''[https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95914/1/BR2_Finney.pdf This is a repository copy of Afterlives of the Afterlife: The Development of Hell in its Jewish and Christian Contexts.]'' Finney, M.T. (2013) Afterlives of the Afterlife: The Development of Hell in its Jewish and Christian Contexts. In: Exum, J.C. and Clines, D.J.A., (eds.) Biblical Reception. Sheffield Phoenix Press , Sheffield . ISBN 978-1-907534-70-6


E.g. see the section: ''Second-Temple Judaism: Resurrection and the Myths of Israel''</ref> As Biblical scholar Bart Ehrman, who wrote a book on the subject ''Journeys to Heaven and Hell'',<ref>''[https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300265163/journeys-to-heaven-and-hell/ Journeys to Heaven and Hell Tours of the Afterlife in the Early Christian Tradition.]'' Bart D. Ehrman. Yale University Press. 2022.</ref> stated in an article for Time Magazine.
E.g. see the section: ''Second-Temple Judaism: Resurrection and the Myths of Israel''</ref> As Biblical scholar Bart Ehrman, who wrote a book on the subject ''Journeys to Heaven and Hell'',<ref>''[https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300265163/journeys-to-heaven-and-hell/ Journeys to Heaven and Hell Tours of the Afterlife in the Early Christian Tradition.]'' Bart D. Ehrman. Yale University Press. 2022.</ref> stated in an article for Time Magazine.
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==== Dhul-Qarnayn/Alexander the great as a monotheist  ====
==== Dhul-Qarnayn/Alexander the great as a monotheist  ====
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}
We find in Surah Al-Kahf, ({{Quran|18|83-101}}), a story about a powerful prophet of Allah 'Dhul-Qarnayn' (meaning 'The Two horned one'), who along with other tasks, builds the massive wall of iron mentioned above. This is a retelling of a common antiquity story based of Alexander the Great.<ref>Van Bladel, Kevin, “''[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Qur_an_in_its_Historical_Context/DbtkpgGn4CEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA175&printsec=frontcover The Alexander legend in the Qur‘an 18:83-102″, in "The Qur’ān in Its Historical Context]''", Ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, New York: Routledge, 2007.</ref> However, this is not the real/historical Alexander, who was a polytheist with no relation to the Judaeo-Christian religion,<ref>''[https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/karanos/karanos_a2022v5/karanos_a2022v5p51.pdf Religion and Alexander the Great.]'' Edward M. Anson. Karanos 5, 2022 51-74. </ref> but rather a legendary version later recast as monotheist by Christians, who's connections and evidence for this can be seen in the main article.  
We find in Surah Al-Kahf, ({{Quran|18|83-101}}), a story about a powerful prophet of Allah 'Dhul-Qarnayn' (meaning 'The Two horned one'), who along with other tasks, builds the massive wall of iron mentioned above. This is a retelling of a common antiquity story based of Alexander the Great.<ref>Van Bladel, Kevin, “''[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Qur_an_in_its_Historical_Context/DbtkpgGn4CEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA175&printsec=frontcover The Alexander legend in the Qur‘an 18:83-102″, in "The Qur’ān in Its Historical Context]''", Ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, New York: Routledge, 2007.</ref> However, this is not the real/historical Alexander, who was a polytheist with no relation to the Judaeo-Christian religion,<ref>''[https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/karanos/karanos_a2022v5/karanos_a2022v5p51.pdf Religion and Alexander the Great.]'' Edward M. Anson. Karanos 5, 2022 51-74. </ref> but rather a legendary version later recast as monotheist by Christians, whose connections and evidence for this can be seen in the main article.  


===David invented coats of mail===
===David invented coats of mail===
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===Crucifixions in ancient Egypt===
===Crucifixions in ancient Egypt===
The first historical reference to crucifixion as a method of execution is from 500 BCE, when the technique began being used in several middle eastern cultures. The Qur'an, by contrast, tells of crucifixions at the time of Moses (approximately 1500 BCE) as well as Joseph (approximately 2000 BCE).
The first historical reference to crucifixion as a method of execution is from 500 BCE, when the technique began being used in several middle eastern cultures.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/crucifixion-capital-punishment crucifixion] | capital punishment | Britannica</ref> The Qur'an, by contrast, tells of crucifixions at the time of Moses (approximately 1500 BCE) as well as Joseph (approximately 2000 BCE).


{{Quote|{{Quran|12|41}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|12|41}}|
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===The singular Pharaoh===
===The singular Pharaoh===
Geographically, the Coptic land of Egypt is adjacent to Arabia. Thus, most Arabs were aware of the preservation method applied by the ancient Egyptian to their pharaohs. Pharaohs were preserved intact using methods such as salt to dry the body (hence, salt in the body of Ramesses II does not suggest that he drowned in the dead sea). There were many pharaohs from numerous dynasties who were preserved in this way. The Qur'an, by contrast, only speaks of "Pharaoh" (''Firaun'') singularly, as a proper noun without the definite article, suggesting that its author was unaware of the multiplicity of pharaohs.{{Quote|{{Quran|10|92}}|
Geographically, the Coptic land of Egypt is adjacent to Arabia. Thus, most Arabs were aware of the preservation method applied by the ancient Egyptian to their pharaohs. Pharaohs were preserved intact using methods such as salt to dry the body (hence, salt in the body of Ramesses II does not suggest that he drowned in the dead sea). There were many pharaohs from numerous dynasties who were preserved in this way. The Qur'an, by contrast, only speaks of "Pharaoh" (''fir'awn'') singularly, as a proper noun without the definite article, suggesting that its author was unaware of the multiplicity of pharaohs.{{Quote|{{Quran|10|92}}|
This day shall We save thee in the body, that thou mayest be a sign to those who come after thee! but verily, many among mankind are heedless of Our Signs!" }}
This day shall We save thee in the body, that thou mayest be a sign to those who come after thee! but verily, many among mankind are heedless of Our Signs!" }}


==== Pharoah as a name and not a title ====
Just like the Bible, the Qur'an contains the story of Moses in ancient Egypt where he is the main antagonist and the ruler of Egypt. Both use the respective name 'pharaoh' (fir'awn in Arabic)<ref>Pharoah classical Arabic dictionaries - [http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/search/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B9%D9%88%D9%86 فرعون] </ref>, however in the Qur'an the word is used as a person's name and not a title as it should be.
The term “Pharaoh,” or parʿo, means “Great Palace/house” in ancient Egyptian, and although he word came to be used metonymically for the Egyptian king under the New Kingdom (starting in the 18th dynasty, c. 1539–c. 1292 BCE), and by the 22nd dynasty (c. 943–c. 746 BCE) it had been adopted as an epithet of respect, but it was not the king’s ''formal'' title<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/pharaoh Pharoah Entry] - Britannica
</ref> Silverstein (2012) notes that it is an idiosyncratic Biblical usage to refer to the ruler of Egypt in this way – as gives an example just as one nowadays might say that “the White House” has issued a statement when referring to the US president.<ref>[https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=SjtbdsMAAAAJ&citation_for_view=SjtbdsMAAAAJ:IjCSPb-OGe4C ''The Qur'anic Pharaoh'']. Adam Silverstein. Taylor and Francis.
Found in: ''pp467 - pp477. '''pp. 467'''. New Perspectives on the Qur'an. The Qur'an in its Historical Context 2''. Edited By Gabriel Reynolds. Edition: 1st Edition. First Published 2011. ImprintRoutledge.
DOI <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813539</nowiki>
eBook ISBN9780203813539
</ref> so the Qur'an takes its understanding of the Biblical Pharoah rather than Egyptian one.<ref>Ibid. pp. 467.</ref>
However the Bible understands “Pharaoh” to be a regal title while the Qurʾān takes Firʿawn to be a more sharply defined historical character.<ref>Ibid. pp. 468</ref> Pharoah is not used with the definite article 'al'/the for 'the pharaoh', as it is always used for singular specific kings correctly ''(see: mentions of [https://corpus.quran.com/search.jsp?q=king King on QuranCorpus]''), which most official translations reflect (though Ali Ahmed and Muhammad Sarwar add 'the' in).
To show how odd this is with a more commonly used example of 'king', for example, take the following verse:
{{Quote|{{Quran|28|38}}|'Pharaoh said, ‘O [members of the] elite! I do not know of any god that you may have besides me. Haman, light for me a fire over clay, and build me a tower so that I may take a look at Moses’ god, and indeed I consider him to be a liar!’}}
Would be changed to:
{{Quote|2=King said, ‘O [members of the] elite! I do not know of any god that you may have besides me. Haman, light for me a fire over clay, and build me a tower so that I may take a look at Moses’ god, and indeed I consider him to be a liar!’}}
Instead of '''The king said..''<nowiki/>'
Gabriel Said Reynolds notes [https://twitter.com/GabrielSaidR/status/1676918663767523331 this], as does Sean W Anthony on [https://twitter.com/shahanSean/status/1676710677988212743 Twitter] who also explains his reasoning when asked; ''It's a relatively simple inference. The Qur'an only calls the enemy of Moses "Pharoah" and *never* calls him the "pharoah of Egypt", "one of the pharoahs", etc. Also one has the phrase آل فرعون like آل موسى, etc. This is consistent w/ usage of "Pharoah" as a name in hadith, too.''
To take another verse we see where a singular noun 'lord' (rabbi) is used without the definite particle 'al', it is followed by (of) the worlds (l-ʿālamīna) to designate the title.
{{Quote|{{Quran|43|46}}|Certainly We sent Moses with Our signs to Pharaoh and his elite. He said, ‘I am indeed an apostle of the Lord of all the worlds.’}}
If replaced with another title like 'Queen' in Q43:46 we get the odd '''Certainly We sent Moses with Our signs to Queen and her elite…'' '
The idea that this is a mistake has further support by the fact that some prominent Christian Preachers post-bible but pre-Islam such as Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394) made the same mistake.<ref>Gregory of Nyssa, ''[http://www.newhumanityinstitute.org/pdf-articles/Gregory-of-Nyssa-The-Life-of-Moses.pdf Life of Moses 1.24].''
'''Pharaoh (for this was the Egyptian tyrant's name)''' attempted to counter the divine signs performed by Moses and Aaron with magical tricks performed by his sorcerers. 47 When Moses again turned his own rod into an animal before the eyes of the Egyptians, they thought that the sorcery of the magicians could equally work miracles with their rods. This deceit was exposed when the serpent produced from the staff of Moses ate the sticks of sorcery—the snakes no less! The rods of the sorcerers had no means of defense nor any power of life, only the appearance which cleverly devised sorcery showed to the eyes of those easily deceived.</ref> It is also sometimes written this way in the Syriac bible (the Peshitta - believed to be published 2nd century CE.)<ref>Peshitta verse [https://dukhrana.com/peshitta/analyze_verse.php?verse=Acts+7:13&font=Estrangelo+Edessa Acts 7:13]</ref> such as in Acts 7:13 so Muhammad would not be the first to make a huge mistake, but rather could have simply heard it this way to begin with.
===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh===
===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh===
The Qur'anic narrative concerning Thamūd contains several major historical inaccuracies:


The Qur'an frequently lists destroyed peoples of the past, particularly the peoples of Noah, Lot, Pharaoh's army, Midian, Aad and its successor, Thamud. The destruction of Thamud after they disbelieved their prophet Salih is mentioned many times, either by an earthquake {{Quran|7|78}} or a thunderous blast (for example {{Quran|54|31}}).
# The structures at al-Hijr were tombs, not homes or palaces, as described in the Qur'an.
# These tombs were built by the Nabateans, not the Thamūd.
# The timeline of Thamūd's existence does not align with the Qur'anic claim that they predated Moses.
# There is no evidence of a sudden mass extinction event for the people as described in the Qur'an.


Its destruction is also alluded to by a believer from the family of Pharaoh:
==== Calling the Tombs Homes and Palaces ====
The Qur'an frequently lists destroyed peoples of the past, particularly the peoples of Noah, Lot, Pharaoh's army, Midian, 'Ad, and its successor, Thamūd. The destruction of Thamūd after they disbelieved their prophet Salih is mentioned multiple times, either by an earthquake ({{Quran|7|78}}) or a thunderous blast ({{Quran|54|31}}). When describing this tale, a key error in the Qur'an is the description of Thamud's structures as homes and palaces. Thamud were a real ancient but extinct people in Arabia centuries before Muhammad that feature in foreign accounts<ref name=":02">Hoyland, Robert G.. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam (Peoples of the Ancient World) (p. 68). Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|40|28|37}}|And a believing man from the family of Pharaoh who concealed his faith said [...] And he who believed said, "O my people, indeed I fear for you [a fate] like the day of the companies - Like the custom of the people of Noah and of 'Aad and Thamud and those after them. And Allah wants no injustice for [His] servants.}}
''..Sargon II (721–705 BC) boasts of having defeated them along with other tribes, ‘the distant desert-dwelling Arabs’, and of having resettled the survivors in Samaria (AR 2.17, 118). In classical times we find them recorded in texts such as Pliny’s Natural history and Ptolemy’s Geography, and some groups of them enrolled in the Roman army. One such group constructed a temple at Rawwafa in northwest Arabia and commemorated it with a bilingual Greek–Nabataean inscription..''</ref> and pre-Islamic poetry including their destruction legend<ref>See: Bulletin of SOAS, 74, 3 (2011), 397–416. © School of Oriental and African Studies, 2011. doi:10.1017/S0041977X11000309 ''Religious poetry from the Quranic milieu: Umayya b. Abī l-Salt on the fate of the Thamūd'' Nicolai Sinai S0041977X11000309jra 397..416


The companies / factions (l-aḥzābu) is a term used collectively for the list of destroyed cities also in {{Quran-range|38|12|14}}.
See also: Hoyland, Robert G.. ''Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam'' (Peoples of the Ancient World) (p. 224). Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.</ref> (though likely originally missing the monotheistic messenger aspect; with Muhammad being the one to bring these local tales into salvation history).<ref>Ibid pp.408. Sinai, 2011. [https://almuslih.org/wp-content/uploads/Library/Sinai,%20N%20-%20Religious%20poetry.pdf Religious poetry from the Quranic milieu: Umayya b. Abī l-Salt on the fate of the Thamūd]</ref>


[[w:Thamud|Thamud]] is a term used by experts for a people or peoples of a particular region over a number of centuries (8th century BCE to the 4th century CE), but the Qur'an speaks only of a particular destruction of Thamud after the warnings of their prophet Salih went unheeded. It describes them as the builders of well known palaces and homes, skillfully carved from the mountains, clarified in the Quran and hadith as a place in Arabia known as al Hijr (the rocky tract), or Mada'in Salih today.  
The Thamud are described as the builders of well-known palaces and homes, skillfully carved from the mountains, clarified in the Quran and hadith as a place in Arabia known as al-Hijr (the rocky tract), currently called 'madāʼin Ṣāliḥ; literally 'Cities of Salih' after this exact story.


The errors in the Quran here are two-fold: It is now known that these were actually elaborately carved tombs, not homes or palaces, and that they  were made by the Nabateans from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century AD, not before the time of the Pharaohs<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ) - unesco.org (includes many photographs of the tombs)]</ref>. Petra in Jordan was the Nabateans' more famous city before al Hijr. There are over 100 tombs at al-Hijr, some very large, and many of them small, believed even by a 14th Century CE Arab traveller to contain the bones of the people of Thamud in their houses.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/document/168945 al-Hijr UNESCO nomination document] p.36 (includes detailed site description)</ref>. Nabatean inscriptions forbid opening the tombs, reusing them or moving the bodies. The town of al-Hegra where the people lived some distance from the surrounding rock tombs was built of mud-brick and stone.<ref>[https://www.arabnews.com/node/350178 History and mystery of Al-Hijr, ancient capital of the Nabateans in Arabia] - Arabnews.com</ref>
Al-Hijr is accepted as this location by Islamic scholars.<ref>E.g. see tafsirs/commentaries [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.80 on verse 15:80]</ref> It is also mentioned once by name in Quran 15:80-83 ("the companions of al-Hijr") and its description and destruction matches that for Thamud.{{Quote|1={{Quran-range|15|80|83}}|2=And certainly did the companions of al-Hijr [ al-Hijr ٱلْحِجْرِ ] deny the messengers. And We gave them Our signs, but from them they were turning away. And they used to carve from the mountains, houses [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], feeling secure. But the shriek seized them at early morning.}}Al-Hijr is also identified in hadiths as the "al Hijr, land of Thamud" (al-hijr ardi Thamudi الْحِجْرِ أَرْضِ ثَمُودَ):{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|55|562}}|Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:


The Quran says Thamud carved palaces from its plains, and homes from its mountains:
The people landed at the land of Thamud called Al-Hijr along with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they took water from its well for drinking and kneading the dough with it as well. (When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) heard about it) he ordered them to pour out the water they had taken from its wells and feed the camels with the dough, and ordered them to take water from the well whence the she-camel (of Prophet Salih) used to drink.}}However, modern archaeology has confirmed that these were not homes or palaces but elaborately carved tombs. These tombs, over 100 in number, vary in size, with some being very large and others quite small. Even a 14th-century Arab traveller believed they contained the bones of the people of Thamud.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/document/168945 al-Hijr UNESCO nomination document] p.36 (includes detailed site description)</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|73|74}}|And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah 's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment. And remember when He made you successors after the 'Aad and settled you in the land, [and] '''you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000317.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 280 بيوت ]</ref>]'''. Then remember the favors of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."}}
The Quran explicitly states that Thamud carved palaces from plains and homes from mountains:{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|73|74}}|And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah 's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment. And remember when He made you successors after the 'Aad and settled you in the land, [and] '''you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000317.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 280 بيوت ]</ref>]'''. Then remember the favors of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."}}{{Quote|{{Quran|26|149}}|And you carve out of the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], with skill.}}However, the structures identified at al-Hijr were in fact formal tombs, not homes, contradicting the Qur'anic descriptions.<ref name=":1">[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ)] - unesco.org (includes many photographs of the tombs)</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|26|149}}|And you carve out of the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], with skill.}}
==== Built by the Nabateans, not the people of Thamūd ====
Another key error is attributing these structures to the Thamūd. It is now known that these rock-cut tombs were built by the Nabateans, a separate group that lived much later than the Thamud, from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.<ref name=":1" /> [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/326/ Petra] in Jordan was the Nabateans' more famous city before al-Hijr which contains the same Nabatean structures.


These ruins were well known to Muhammad's listeners:
Nabatean inscriptions at the site forbid opening the tombs, reusing them, or moving the bodies. The actual town of "al-Hijr / Hegra", where the people lived, was built of mud-brick and stone some distance from the surrounding rock-cut tombs.<ref>[https://www.arabnews.com/node/350178 History and mystery of Al-Hijr, ancient capital of the Nabateans in Arabia] - Arabnews.com</ref> This confirms that the elaborate structures in the mountains were not homes but were burial sites made by a later civilization.


{{Quote|{{Quran|29|38}}|And [We destroyed] 'Aad and Thamud, and it has become clear to you from their [ruined] dwellings [ masākinihim مَّسَٰكِنِهِمْ <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000118.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1394 مسكن]</ref>]. And Satan had made pleasing to them their deeds and averted them from the path, and they were endowed with perception.}}
Despite this, the Qur'an presents the Thamud as the builders of these mountain structures, again linking their story to visible ruins and emphasizing their destruction as a theological lesson who are told to reflect on them as signs of God;<ref name=":02" /> Allāh left them specifically for that purpose,<ref name=":02" /> so we can assume they were still there and known to the audience, at least at the time of preaching. These were well known to Muhammad's listeners:{{Quote|{{Quran|29|38}}|And [We destroyed] 'Aad and Thamud, and it has become clear to you from their [ruined] dwellings [ masākinihim مَّسَٰكِنِهِمْ <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000118.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1394 مسكن]</ref>]. And Satan had made pleasing to them their deeds and averted them from the path, and they were endowed with perception.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|89|9}}|And [with] Thamud, who carved out the rocks in the valley?}}The Nabateans are a distinct people from the Thamud, as evidenced in Arabic literature including the hadith which also distinguishes the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=nabatean Nabateans (al-Anbat)](e.g. {{Muslim|32|6330}}) from the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=thamud Thamud].


{{Quote|{{Quran|89|9}}|And [with] Thamud, who carved out the rocks in the valley?}}
The companies / factions (l-aḥzābu) is a term used collectively for the list of destroyed cities also in {{Quran|38|12-14}}, with each people (umma) getting their own separate messenger (e.g. {{Quran|13|7}}).<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 127).'' Lexington Books.</ref> However given the similar locations of past Arab groups, it is easy to see how they were confused.


Al-Hijr is widely accepted as this location. It is also mentioned once by name in {{Quran-range|15|80|83}} ("the companions of al-Hijr") and its description and destruction matches that for Thamud.  
==== Before the Time of Moses ====
The Qur'an references the Thamud as a people who lived before the time of Pharaoh, implying they existed long before Moses before being destroyed:{{Quote|{{Quran|40|28-37}}|And a believing man from the family of Pharaoh who concealed his faith said [...] And he who believed said, "O my people, indeed I fear for you [a fate] like the day of the companies - Like the custom of the people of Noah and of 'Aad and Thamud and those after them. And Allah wants no injustice for [His] servants.}}However, historical and archaeological evidence shows that the Thamud were an ancient but extinct Arabian people who existed from the 8th century BCE to the 5th century CE.<ref name=":2">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thamud Thamūd] (ancient Arabian tribe) - Peoples of Asia - Britannica


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|80|83}}|And certainly did the companions of Thamud [ al-Hijr ٱلْحِجْرِ ] deny the messengers. And We gave them Our signs, but from them they were turning away. And they used to carve from the mountains, houses [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], feeling secure. But the shriek seized them at early morning.}}
''Thamūd, in ancient Arabia, tribe or group of tribes known to be extant from the 8th century bce to the 5th century ce..''</ref> Meanwhile, Moses is traditionally dated to the 14th–13th century BCE,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moses-Hebrew-prophet Moses] - Brittanica. Dewey M. Beegle. 2025 (last updated)</ref> though there is ongoing debate among historians about his existence and the exact timeline of early Israelite history. Nevertheless, even ignoring biblical and Islamic (but non-Quranic such as Tafsirs) writings, the most chronologically late estimates must place Moses' time to at least 900 - 850BCE as this is approximately when Israel's formation occurred,<ref>Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57:


Al-Hijr is also identified in hadiths as the "al Hijr, land of Thamud" (al hijr ardi Thamudi الْحِجْرِ أَرْضِ ثَمُودَ):
''"...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."''</ref> while the Thamud are attested to have existed until much later than this period.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":02" /> This discrepancy contradicts the Qur'anic implication that the Thamud predate Moses. In reality, they were a historical people who lived much later than traditionally assumed.


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|55|562}}|Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:
There is also no archaeological evidence for mass sudden deaths of the entire people at once, or any writings from surrounding kingdoms that speak of this.
 
The people landed at the land of Thamud called Al-Hijr along with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they took water from its well for drinking and kneading the dough with it as well. (When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) heard about it) he ordered them to pour out the water they had taken from its wells and feed the camels with the dough, and ordered them to take water from the well whence the she-camel (of Prophet Salih) used to drink.}}


===Countable currency in ancient Egypt===
===Countable currency in ancient Egypt===
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004337121_011</ref> notes in his paper “''Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān''”, the Qur'an has many verses that unequivocally state that the Israelites took over the land of pharaoh and his followers, i.e. Egypt (which many traditional Islamic scholars have agreed with).<ref>E.g. see the debates in https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.61 and https://quranx.com/tafsirs/10.93 over what land the Israelites inherit, including Egypt.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004337121_011</ref> notes in his paper “''Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān''”, the Qur'an has many verses that unequivocally state that the Israelites took over the land of pharaoh and his followers, i.e. Egypt (which many traditional Islamic scholars have agreed with).<ref>E.g. see the debates in https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.61 and https://quranx.com/tafsirs/10.93 over what land the Israelites inherit, including Egypt.


Interestingly in the commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/26.59 verse 26:59], the modern tafsir Maududi - Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an (published 1972) main reason for rejecting the Egyptian interpretation is that the facts are not supported by history, and he alleges other verses in the Qur'an - however as Sinai examines in this paper, this is untrue.</ref>
Interestingly in the commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/26.59 verse 26:59], the modern tafsir Maududi - Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an (published 1972) main reason for rejecting the Egyptian interpretation is that the facts are not supported by history, and he alleges other verses in the Qur'an support leaving Egypt - however as Sinai examines in this paper, this is untrue.</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|26|57-59}}|2=We brought them [the people of Pharaoh] out of gardens and springs and treasures and a noble place. Thus it was; and We caused the Israelites to inherit them [= the gardens and the springs etc.].}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|26|57-59}}|2=We brought them [the people of Pharaoh] out of gardens and springs and treasures and a noble place. Thus it was; and We caused the Israelites to inherit them [= the gardens and the springs etc.].}}
That the Israelites take over the land of Pharaoh rather than migrating elsewhere is also implied by the end of the brief Moses pericope in:<ref>“''[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān]''”, Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, pp. 198–214. ''pp. 203.''
That the Israelites take over the land of Pharaoh rather than migrating elsewhere is also implied by the end of the brief Moses pericope in:<ref>“''[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān]''”, Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, pp. 198–214. ''pp. 203.''
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''While focused on the biblical account, the majority of the points apply to the Quranic version.''</ref> some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Key elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them.  
''While focused on the biblical account, the majority of the points apply to the Quranic version.''</ref> some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Key elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them.  


Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark.
Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local - and no other punishment narrative contains this detail. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark.


Not to mention all major traditional Islamic scholars, who dedicated their lives to studying the meaning of the Quran, unanimously took the language in these verses to mean referring to a global flood, including (but certainly not limited to) Al-Jalalayn / Al-Mahalli and Al-Suyuti, Ibn ‘Abbâs, Ibn Kathir, Al-Tabari, Muqatil ibn Sulayman, Al-Razi and Al-Qurtubi etc.<ref>''For example on verse 37:77, with all stating that all humans are descended from Noah, with many listing the ancestors of different races. These comments indicating a global flood can be found on their commentary on many other verses.''''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/37.77 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on verse 37:77].'' Al-Jalalayn / Al-Mahalli and as-Suyuti. Published 1505CE.
Noah's flood was also used by a wide range of pre-modern Muslim historians and theologians to mark history into Prediluvian and Postdiluvian era's for dating,<ref>van Bladel, Kevin. ''The Arabic Hermes: From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (E.g.  Kindle Edition.  pp.121, 123, 125-126,  130-131, 144-146, 160, 190, 193 & 194)'' Oxford University Press.</ref> such as Abū Ma'shar making it the central event.<ref>Ibid. pp. 149</ref> Not to mention all major traditional Islamic scholars, who dedicated their lives to studying the meaning of the Quran, unanimously took the language in these verses to mean referring to a global flood, including (but certainly not limited to) Al-Jalalayn / Al-Mahalli and Al-Suyuti, Ibn ‘Abbâs, Ibn Kathir, Al-Tabari, Muqatil ibn Sulayman, Al-Razi and Al-Qurtubi etc.<ref>''For example on verse 37:77, with all stating that all humans are descended from Noah, with many listing the ancestors of different races. These comments indicating a global flood can be found on their commentary on many other verses.''''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/37.77 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on verse 37:77].'' Al-Jalalayn / Al-Mahalli and as-Suyuti. Published 1505CE.


''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/37.77 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs on Verse 37:77.]'' Attributed to Ibn Abbas but of unknown medieval scholar's origin.
''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/37.77 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs on Verse 37:77.]'' Attributed to Ibn Abbas but of unknown medieval scholar's origin.
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[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=3&tSoraNo=37&tAyahNo=77&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 ''Tafsir Al-Qurtubi on Verse 37:77.''] Al-Qurtubi d. 1273CE.
[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=3&tSoraNo=37&tAyahNo=77&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 ''Tafsir Al-Qurtubi on Verse 37:77.''] Al-Qurtubi d. 1273CE.


</ref> {{Quote|{{Quran-range|54|11|12}}|Then opened We the gates of heaven with pouring water And caused the earth to gush forth springs, so that the waters met for a predestined purpose.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|At length, behold! there came Our command, and the fountains of the earth gushed forth! '''We said: "Embark therein, of each kind two, male and female''', and your family - except those against whom the word has already gone forth,- and the Believers." but only a few believed with him.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|42}}|And it sailed along with them <b>amid waves [rising] like mountains.</b> Noah called out to his son, who stood aloof, ‘O my son! ‘Board with us, and do not be with the faithless!’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|43}}|The son replied: "I will <b>betake myself to some mountain:</b> it will save me from the water." Noah said: '''"This day nothing can save''', from the command of Allah, any but those on whom He hath mercy! "And the waves came between them, and the son was among those overwhelmed in the Flood.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|44}}|Then it was said, ‘O earth, swallow your water! O sky, leave off!’ The waters receded; the edict was carried out, <b>and it settled on [Mount] Judi.</b> Then it was said, ‘Away with the wrongdoing lot!’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|71|26}}|And Noah, said: "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers, a single one on earth!}}{{Quote|{{Quran|37|75-82}}|Noah called to Us; and how excellent were the Answerers!
</ref> As do many modern Islamic scholars and sheiks.<ref>E.g. see: IslamQ&A. 2013. [https://islamqa.info/en/answers/130293/did-everyone-on-earth-drown-at-the-great-flood-at-the-time-of-nooh-peace-be-upon-him Did everyone on earth drown at the great Flood at the time of Nooh (peace be upon him)?]</ref>
 
Similar to [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%207%3A11&version=NIV Genesis 7:1] in the Bible ("on that day all the springs of the great deep burst forth, and the floodgates of the heavens were opened."), the Quran states that waters poured from the gates of heaven, as well as gushing from springs below the ground. In addition, Q 11:40 and Q 23:27 quoted below likely allude to a late antique legend that the wife of Noah's son Ham was alerted to the onset of the flood by water gushing up through a bread oven, which was a large hole dug into the ground.<ref>Olivier Mongellaz (2024) [https://brill.com/view/journals/arab/71/4-5/article-p513_4.xml Le four de Noé : un cas d’intertextualité coranique], Arabica 71(4-5), 513-637. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-20246900</ref>
 
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|54|11|12}}|Then opened We the gates of heaven with pouring water And caused the earth to gush forth springs, so that the waters met for a predestined purpose.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|[So it was], '''until when Our command came and the oven overflowed''', We said, "Load upon the ship of each [creature] two mates and your family, except those about whom the word has preceded, and [include] whoever has believed." But none had believed with him, except a few.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|23|27}}|So We inspired to him, "Construct the ship under Our observation, and Our inspiration, and '''when Our command comes and the oven overflows''', put into the ship from each [creature] two mates and your family, except those for whom the decree [of destruction] has proceeded. And do not address Me concerning those who have wronged; indeed, they are to be drowned.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|42}}|And it sailed along with them <b>amid waves [rising] like mountains.</b> Noah called out to his son, who stood aloof, ‘O my son! ‘Board with us, and do not be with the faithless!’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|43}}|The son replied: "I will <b>betake myself to some mountain:</b> it will save me from the water." Noah said: '''"This day nothing can save''', from the command of Allah, any but those on whom He hath mercy! "And the waves came between them, and the son was among those overwhelmed in the Flood.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|44}}|Then it was said, ‘O earth, swallow your water! O sky, leave off!’ The waters receded; the edict was carried out, <b>and it settled on [Mount] Judi.</b> Then it was said, ‘Away with the wrongdoing lot!’}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|26|28}}|My Lord, <b>leave not one of the unbelievers upon the earth!</b> Surely, if you leave them, they will lead your servants astray, and will beget none but unbelieving libertines.}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|37|75|82}}|Noah called to Us; and how excellent were the Answerers!


And We delivered him and his people from the great distress,
And We delivered him and his people from the great distress,
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'''and We made his seed the survivors''',
'''and We made his seed the survivors''',


and left for him among the later folk
And left for him [favorable mention] among later generations:


'Peace be upon Noah among all beings!'
'Peace be upon Noah among all beings!'
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he was among Our believing servants.
he was among Our believing servants.


'''Then afterwards We drowned the rest'''.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|6|84}}|2=And We gave him Isaac and Jacob and guided them, as We had <b>guided Noah before them, and of his descendants, David and Solomon and Job and Joseph and Moses and Aaron.</b> Thus We reward those who are upright and do good.}}
'''Then afterwards We drowned the rest'''.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|6|84}}|2=And We gave him Isaac and Jacob and guided them, as We had <b>guided Noah before them, and of his descendants, David and Solomon and Job and Joseph and Moses and Aaron.</b> Thus We reward those who are upright and do good.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|17|2-3}}|We gave Moses the Book, and made it a guide for the Children of Israel—[saying,] ‘Do not take any trustee besides Me’—<br><b>descendants of those whom We carried [in the ark] with Noah.</b> Indeed, he was a grateful servant.}}The word used for descendants/offspring/seed etc. is 'dhurrīyat' ذرية,<ref>Quran Dictionary - Root ذ ر ر  ''(See [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/09_c/016_cr.html ذر] & [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/09_c/017_crO.html ذرأ])''
 
Lane's Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary: dhurriyyat / dhurriyyāt see [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0957.pdf p 957] & [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0958.pdf 958]</ref> e.g. the above “''descendants of those whom We carried [in the ark] with Noah” ((dhurrīyat) man ḥamalnā maʿa Nūḥ''") {{Quran|17|3}}.


===Flood waters boiled from an oven===
In {{Quran|4|163}} Noah is labelled as before the other biblical prophets chronologically (see also: {{Quran|6|84}}), who are descendants of him. Similarly in {{Quran-range|3|33|34}} we are given Adam and Noah linked together when noting some of prophets are descendants of others (Cf: {{Quran|19|58}}).
The Qur'an further describes the flood waters as boiling from an oven. There is no scientific nor historical evidence for a large flood of this nature. This element is not found even in more ancient versions of the story (Epic of Gilgamesh, Atra hasis, and Ziusudra). Its ultimate origin appears to be a highly tenuous rabbinical exegesis in the Babylonian Talmud, based on a word in an unrelated verse that means heat or wrath.<ref>[https://biblehub.com/lexicon/esther/7-10.htm biblehub.com]</ref>{{Quote|1=[https://www.sefaria.org/Rosh_Hashanah.12a.4?lang=bi Tracate Rosh Hashanah]|2=The Gemara answers: Even according to Rabbi Eliezer a change was made, in accordance with the statement of Rav Ḥisda, as Rav Ḥisda said: They sinned with boiling heat, and they were punished with boiling heat; they sinned with the boiling heat of the sin of forbidden sexual relations, and they were punished with the boiling heat of scalding waters. This is derived from a verbal analogy. It is written here, with regard to the flood: “And the waters abated” (Genesis 8:1), and it is written elsewhere, with regard to King Ahasuerus: “And the heated anger of the king abated” (Esther 7:10), which implies that the word “abated” means cooled. This indicates that at first the waters of the flood had been scalding hot.}}Note that in his translation, Yusuf Ali mistranslates the Aramaic loan word for the oven (alttannooru ٱلتَّنُّورُ)<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000355.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 318 تَّنُّورُ]</ref> as "fountains". The Arabic verb translated "gushed forth" (fara فَارَ) means "boiled" in the context of water in a cooking pot<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000241.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2457 فور]</ref>, as well as in the other verse where it is used, {{Quran|67|7}}.{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|
 
(Thus it was) till, when Our commandment came to pass '''and the oven gushed forth water''', We said: Load therein two of every kind, a pair (the male and female), and thy household, save him against whom the word hath gone forth already, and those who believe. And but a few were they who believed with him.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|23|27}}|
And Q11:48 we are told that nations/peoples (umam) will come from those with Noah, with some of them being blessed and others will be punished - usually taken by exegetes as reference to future [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment_narratives_in_the_Quran punishment narratives] on peoples/nations, or individual judgements,<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/11.48 ''Q11:48'']</ref> another statement not given to any of the other prophets.
Then We inspired in him, saying: Make the ship under Our eyes and Our inspiration. Then, when Our command cometh '''and the oven gusheth water''', introduce therein of every (kind) two spouses, and thy household save him thereof against whom the Word hath already gone forth. And plead not with Me on behalf of those who have done wrong. Lo! they will be drowned.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|48}}|It was said, ‘O Noah! Disembark in peace from Us and with [Our] blessings upon you and upon nations <b>(umam)</b> [to descend] from those who are with you, and nations whom We shall provide for, then a painful punishment from Us shall befall them.’}}


===Noah's ark holding every species===
===Noah's ark holding every species===
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===Arabian idols from the time of Noah===
===Arabian idols from the time of Noah===
Five gods from the time of Noah are mentioned in one verse. Strangely, according to Ibn Abbas these happened to be idols worshipped by Arab tribes at the time of Muhammad. It is far fetched even on the Quran's own terms to place Arab idols back in the time of Noah, not least since all the disbelievers of Noah's time were supposedly destroyed by the flood.
Five gods from the time of Noah are mentioned in one verse. Strangely, according to Ibn Abbas these happened to be idols worshipped by Arab tribes at the time of Muhammad. Some such as Wadd have been confirmed from Southern Arabian inscriptions in the centuries preceding Islam,<ref>[https://brill.com/display/title/69380?language=en ''Muḥammad and His Followers in Context:'' ''The Religious Map of Late Antique Arabia'']: 209 (Islamic History and Civilization) Nov. 2023. Ilkka Lindstedt. pp. 66</ref> and Nasr has been found in both North and Southern Arabian Epigraphy.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 282)''. Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.
 
''The names are also attested outside of the Qurʾan and are partly classified as Old South Arabian (on Wadd see Horovitz, KU, 150; on Nasr, known from epigraphic testimonies in southern and northern Arabia, see KU, 144; on Yaghūth and Yaʿūq see KU, 153, and generally Wellhausen 1897: 19–22).''</ref> It is far fetched even on the Quran's own terms to place Arab idols back in the time of Noah, not least since all the disbelievers of Noah's time were supposedly destroyed by the flood.  


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|21|23}}|Noah said, "My Lord, indeed they have disobeyed me and followed him whose wealth and children will not increase him except in loss. And they conspired an immense conspiracy. And said, 'Never leave your gods and never leave Wadd or Suwa' or Yaghuth and Ya'uq and Nasr.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|21|23}}|Noah said, "My Lord, indeed they have disobeyed me and followed him whose wealth and children will not increase him except in loss. And they conspired an immense conspiracy. And said, 'Never leave your gods and never leave Wadd or Suwa' or Yaghuth and Ya'uq and Nasr.}}
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The Quran state that outside the vicinity of Arabia there existed cities and tribes destroyed by Allah for rejecting his messengers and Islam. In each specific example presented in the Qur'an (the people of ''A'ad'', ''Thamud'', ''Midian'', [[Lut|''Lut'' (Lot)]], and the Pharoah's army), the destruction of the disbelievers is sudden and total. Archaeological research, by contrast, has revealed that historical cities and tribes were only gradually ruined by natural disasters, famine, wars, migration, or neglect, often taking years or decades to unfold. In this respect, the Quran appears to have adopted and adapted contemporary Arabian myths regarding the destruction of neighboring cities, some of which may not have existed.
The Quran state that outside the vicinity of Arabia there existed cities and tribes destroyed by Allah for rejecting his messengers and Islam. In each specific example presented in the Qur'an (the people of ''A'ad'', ''Thamud'', ''Midian'', [[Lut|''Lut'' (Lot)]], and the Pharoah's army), the destruction of the disbelievers is sudden and total. Archaeological research, by contrast, has revealed that historical cities and tribes were only gradually ruined by natural disasters, famine, wars, migration, or neglect, often taking years or decades to unfold. In this respect, the Quran appears to have adopted and adapted contemporary Arabian myths regarding the destruction of neighboring cities, some of which may not have existed.


In the Qur'an, the people of ''Thamud'' are killed instantly by an earthquake {{Quran|7|78}} or thunderous blast {{Quran|11|67}}, {{Quran-range|41|13|17}}, {{Quran|51|44}}, {{Quran|69|5}}. The people of ''A'ad'' are killed by a fierce wind that blew for 7 days {{Quran-range|41|13|16}},{{Quran-range|46|24|35}},{{Quran|51|41}}, {{Quran-range|69|6|7}}. The people of Midian (''Midyan'') are killed overnight by an earthquake {{Quran|7|91}}, {{Quran|29|36}}. The towns of Lot (''Lut'') are destroyed by a storm of stones from the sky {{Quran|54|32}}, {{Quran|29|34}}. The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.
In the Qur'an, the people of ''Thamud'' are killed instantly by an earthquake {{Quran|7|78}} or thunderous blast {{Quran|11|67}}, {{Quran-range|41|13|17}}, {{Quran|51|44}}, {{Quran|69|5}}. The people of ''A'ad'' are killed by a fierce wind that blew for 7 days {{Quran-range|41|13|16}},{{Quran-range|46|24|35}},{{Quran|51|41}}, {{Quran-range|69|6|7}}. The people of Midian (''Midyan'') are killed overnight by an earthquake {{Quran|7|91}}, {{Quran|29|36}}. The towns of Lot (''Lut'') are destroyed by a storm of stones from the sky {{Quran|54|32}}, {{Quran|29|34}}. The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult. Similarly the people of ''Tubba''' are listed as a destroyed people for denying their messenger in {{Quran|44|37}} and {{Quran|50|14}}, with Tubba' most commonly identified as a Himyarite (a Southern Arabian Empire primarily covering modern day Yemen) king by traditional Islamic scholars<ref>See classical commentaries [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/44.37 on Q44:37]</ref> without the method of destruction being specified in the Qu'ran.


Critics have also asked why it is that various other polytheistic cultures worldwide did not encounter similar fates as those outlined in the Quran, especially if there is 'no change in the way of Allah' ({{Quran|33|62}}){{Quote|{{Quran|22|45}}|And how many a township have We destroyed because it had been immersed in evildoing - and now they [all] lie deserted, with their roofs caved in! And how many a well lies abandoned, and how many a castle that [once] stood high!}}The suddenness of Allah's punishment is stressed repeatedly in Surah al-A'raf:{{Quote|{{Quran|7|4}}|How many a township have We destroyed! As a raid by night, or while they slept at noon, Our terror came unto them.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|7|34}}|And every nation hath its term, and when its term cometh, they cannot put it off an hour nor yet advance (it).}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|97|98}}|Are the people of the townships then secure from the coming of Our wrath upon them as a night-raid while they sleep? Or are the people of the townships then secure from the coming of Our wrath upon them in the daytime while they play?}}
Critics have also asked why it is that various other polytheistic cultures worldwide did not encounter similar fates as those outlined in the Quran, especially if there is 'no change in the way of Allah' ({{Quran|33|62}}){{Quote|{{Quran|22|45}}|And how many a township have We destroyed because it had been immersed in evildoing - and now they [all] lie deserted, with their roofs caved in! And how many a well lies abandoned, and how many a castle that [once] stood high!}}The suddenness of Allah's punishment is stressed repeatedly in Surah al-A'raf:{{Quote|{{Quran|7|4}}|How many a township have We destroyed! As a raid by night, or while they slept at noon, Our terror came unto them.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|7|34}}|And every nation hath its term, and when its term cometh, they cannot put it off an hour nor yet advance (it).}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|97|98}}|Are the people of the townships then secure from the coming of Our wrath upon them as a night-raid while they sleep? Or are the people of the townships then secure from the coming of Our wrath upon them in the daytime while they play?}}
==== The Total Destruction of Pharaohs/Egypts Monuments ====
Following the similiar line of a total divine destruction, the Quran makes a particular claim in regards to the destruction of Pharaohs buildings:
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|137}}|And We caused the people who had been oppressed to inherit the eastern regions of the land and the western ones, which We had blessed. And the good word of your Lord was fulfilled for the Children of Israel because of what they had patiently endured. '''And We destroyed [all] that Pharaoh and his people were producing and what they had been building.'''}}
To fully understand the implications of this verse, one must know that the Quran actively associates the figure of Pharaoh – specifically in the Quranic narrative of the Exodus & Moses – with building buildings and monuments out of his own hubris and pridefulness. Dr. Devin J. Stewarts explains this Quranic phenomenon as follows:
{{Quote|Stewart, D. J. (2024). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/382862079_Signs_for_Those_Who_Can_Decipher_Them_Ancient_Ruins_in_the_Quran" Signs for Those Who Can Decipher Them”, Ancient Ruins in the Qurʾān.] In Rashwani, S. (ed.) "Behind the Story: Ethical Readings of Qurʾānic Narratives". Brill. p. 50.|Several monuments are attributed to Pharaoh. First, Pharaoh is twice termed dhūl-awtād, literally “possessor of the tent-pegs.” This epithet, often understood by commentators to refer to his alleged use of stakes as implements of torture, probably refers instead to the fact that he was the builder of the pyra- mids, obelisks, or other monumental buildings. [...] It is reasonable to assume that the Prophet Muḥammad’s contemporaries were aware, even at some distance, of Egypt’s most famous monuments. A second type of building is attributed to Pharaoh when he orders his vizier, Hāmān, to build a palace or tower (ṣarḥ) that he might ascend to look upon the lord of Moses (Q 28:38). One may compare this to the Tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis, a symbol of mankind’s—and in this case Pharaoh’s—arrogance. These both may be related to ruins of colossal Ancient Egyptian edifices that were standing in Egypt during the Prophet’s era.}}
Based on this, it can be said that the author of the Quran is in verse 7:137 stating that the buildings built by Pharaoh were totally, or atleast in great number, destroyed by divine order (as is the description style of the other instances in regards to pre-islamic tribes and socities – like for example A'ad, Thamud & Midian). The verb دَمَّرْنَا, ''dammarnā,'' used for destruction in this verse also implies it to be mostly total.<ref>For an exhaustive list of lexicon entries (such as Lanes Lexicon, Hans Wehr [4th. ed.], Lisan al-Arab, etc.) please refer to the following link: &nbsp;[https://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=350,ll=955,ls=5,la=1420,sg=391,ha=227,br=338,pr=57,vi=149,mgf=306,mr=232,mn=420,aan=192,kz=740,uqq=106,ulq=724,uqa=135,uqw=545,umr=371,ums=303,umj=253,bdw=320,amr=228,asb=296,auh=574,dhq=182,mht=296,msb=83,tla=48,amj=245,ens=1,mis=679 Ejtaal.net – Lexicon Entries on دمر]  &nbsp;</ref>  This as a claim, as in the case of afore discussion on the pre-Islamic tribes, is problematic because we do not have any historical source to mention such a wide and total destruction of buildings – yet to mention the ones directly ordered by the Pharaoh himself – from any period of Ancient Egyptian history.
The Quranic description here is totally at odds with the currently available historical record on the Ancient Egypt and its history.<ref>E.g. main events are well-documented but do not include this; [https://australian.museum/learn/cultures/international-collection/ancient-egyptian/ancient-egyptian-timeline/ Ancient Egyptian Timeline.] 2023. Ancient Egyptian History.
[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13315719 Egypt profile - Timeline.] 2019. BBC.
[https://www.history.org.uk/primary/resource/3873/ancient-egypt Ancient Egypt.] Historical Association. History.org.uk
[https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/ancient-egypt Ancient Egypt.] Jessica van Dop DeJesus. National Geographic.</ref>


===Humans lived for hundreds of years===
===Humans lived for hundreds of years===
The oldest verified human life was a little over 120 years. Based on fossil records and testing on human remains, anthropologists have concluded that human life spans are increasing rather than decreasing in both the long- and short- run. By contrast, the Qur'an states that Noah lived for almost 1,000 years. The idea of humans living for hundreds of years in the past is accompanied by the many hadiths, including accounts in Sahih Bukhari, which describe Adam as being 90 feet tall. The general doctrine appears to be that ancient humans were both gigantic as well as long-living.{{Quote|{{Quran|29|14}}|
The oldest verified human life was a little over 120 years. Based on fossil records and testing on human remains, anthropologists have concluded that human life spans are increasing rather than decreasing in both the long- and short- run. By contrast, the Qur'an states that Noah lived for almost 1,000 years. The idea of humans living for hundreds of years in the past is accompanied by the many hadiths, including accounts in Sahih Bukhari, which describe Adam as being 90 feet tall. The general doctrine appears to be that ancient humans were both gigantic as well as long-living.{{Quote|{{Quran|29|14}}|
We (once) sent Noah to his people, and he tarried among them '''a thousand years less fifty''': but the Deluge overwhelmed them while they (persisted in) sin. }}
We (once) sent Noah to his people, and he tarried among them '''a thousand years less fifty''': but the Deluge overwhelmed them while they (persisted in) sin. }}
=== Judgement day would be close to Muhammad's time ===
The idea of judgment day being imminent was a common belief in late antiquity, with many prominent Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian writings preaching the eschaton (the purposeful end of the world as part of Gods divine plan for judgement day) was about to happen, which continued in early Islam.<ref>For examples of sudden end times being promised due to political movements in Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrianism literature in the centuries preceding Islam, see Shoemaker, Stephen J. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv16t6jmh. ''The Apocalypse of Empire: Imperial Eschatology in Late Antiquity and Early Islam.''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018. Chapters 1 - 4
And for early Islam, see chapters 5 and 6.</ref> Muhammad preached this belief in the Qur'an.<ref>Ibid. pp. 124-132</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|54|1}}|<b>The Hour has drawn near</b> and the moon is split.}}
(See also e.g. {{Quran|40|18}} and {{Quran|53|57}} where it's imminence/closeness is implied in the words ''azifati / āzifat''<ref>Lane's Lexicon Quranic Research [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/01_A/067_Azf.html for root ازف]
Lane's Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0053.pdf أَزِفَتِ / (ءَازِفَة Book 1. pp 53.]</ref>)
Some take {{Quran|54|1}} as a future prediction of a sign of judgment day, however Neuwirth (2024) notes the issue with interpreting this as a future event is not based on the Qur'an words but later traditions.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (pp. 57-58).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> Alongside the [[Scientific Errors in the Quran#Moon%20split%20in%20two|moon splitting in this verse]], which given the dubious scientific issues and lack of sighting's from anywhere else in the world, modern academics have noted was most likely referring to a celestial phenomenon like a lunar eclipse,<ref>Ibid. pp. 56 - 57
(Citing Uri Rubin who suggests a partial lunar eclipse, who also notes Rudi Paret came to the same conclusion in ''“Muhammad’s message in Mecca: warnings, signs, and miracles" [The case of the splitting of the moon (Q 54:1-2)].'' in Jonathan E. Brockopp, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (Cambridge, 2010), 39-60. Uri Rubin. Rudi Paret's opinion is noted in footnote 9 pp. 44.</ref> given as a sign of the hour close to happening, which the Meccans rejected due to it seemingly being unrelated to Muhammad.<ref>Ibid. pp. 57</ref> The hours non-arrival seemed to be a repeated source of contention with his audience, with opponents regularly questioning when it would arrive, and questioning why the punishment that was promised to them has not yet come.<ref>Shoemaker, Stephen J.. ''The Death of a Prophet (Divinations: Rereading Late Ancient Religion) (p. 161-163).'' University of Pennsylvania Press, Inc.. Kindle Edition.
(For example Q79:42, and he is told to hasten it in Q29:53, cf: Q11:8, and questioned as why the punishment promised to them hasn't come in Q7:70, 77; Q10:48; Q13:6; Q21:38; Q22:47; Q46:22).</ref> Though one might point out there may appear to be tension with the creation of a law-giving prophet and community building in the Medinan Qur'an, Shoemaker and Cook point out those preaching the end of the world often also preached living righteously until the hour arrived.<ref>Ibid. pp. 159</ref>
Alongside the plain meaning of the text, there is ample evidence this belief was held by many early Muslims too, including very early canonical and sahih rated hadith (''see: [[Scientific Errors in the Hadith#Failed%20eschatological%20predictions|failed eschatological predictions in the hadith]]'') with more cited by Shoemaker.<ref>Shoemaker, Stephen J. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv16t6jmh. ''The Apocalypse of Empire: Imperial Eschatology in Late Antiquity and Early Islam.''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018. pp. 131-132 & pp. 142-144</ref> There are also many other non-canonical but early (within the first century of Islam) traditions stating the end of the eschaton would occur within Muhammad's lifetime or shortly after,<ref>Shoemaker, Stephen J.. ''The Death of a Prophet (p. 174-178).'' Kindle Edition.</ref> in other sources such biographical 'seerah' material<ref>Ibid. & Shoemaker, Stephen J. 2018. ''The Apocalypse of Empire: Imperial Eschatology in Late Antiquity and Early Islam. pp. 142-144.''</ref> Later Islamic scholars like al-Tabari would often use metaphorical interpretations of these to reconcile the continued passage of time by pushing the predicted end date into the future.<ref>Shoemaker, Stephen J. 2018. ''The Death of a Prophet (p. 173-174).'' Kindle Edition.
[Note the following numerical symbolism interpretation of the eschatological hadith are also false predictions as this would move judgment day to no later than ~1,132AD (As 500 years after Muhammad's death being traditionally recorded in 632AD)]
"Perhaps the most famous effort to reconcile the two fingers tradition with the Hour’s delay occurs at the beginning of al-Ṭabarī’s History, where he rather cleverly deploys this tradition in order to place his work within an extended version of Islam’s eschatological calendar.<sup>231</sup> This he achieves by transforming these eschatological warnings of imminent doom into an orderly model of historical periodization that frames his historical narrative. ''Al-Ṭabarī here concludes that since the index finger is one-fourteenth shorter than the middle finger, and the total length of the world’s existence is known to be seven thousand years, Muhammad clearly meant to signal that the Hour would arrive five hundred years after him, thus leaving another two hundred years or so beyond al-Ṭabarī before the world would come to an end.'' In the same context, al-Ṭabarī also identifies a second eschatological tradition that he employs to similar effect. According to this report, Muhammad once addressed his followers at a time “when the sun had almost set and only a small sliver of it remained visible,” and he explained to them that “as compared to what remains of our world, that which has passed is like what remains of this day as compared to what has passed of it, and you will see only a little (more) of the sun.”<sup>232</sup> The eschatological immediacy of this ḥadīth is rather clear, and once again it seems quite unlikely that such a prediction would have been ascribed to Muhammad very long after his death. ''Yet here al-Ṭabarī deploys a similar hermeneutic strategy that enables him again to push the Hour into the future. When Muhammad spoke these words, according to al-Ṭabarī, the day was half past, and since a day with God is as a thousand years, the Hour’s advent could be expected five hundred years after the time when Muhammad spoke. In this way, what was presumably a very early expression of Islamic belief in the Hour’s immediacy could be reconciled with the centuries that had elapsed between Muhammad’s warnings and al-Ṭabarī himself.'' By reinterpreting the tradition’s “small sliver” of the sun as somehow the equivalent of midday, al-Ṭabarī postpones the Hour into a distant future."</ref>
Given we are still here more than a millennium after it was stated, we can say like other contemporary preachers who thought they were at the end of history, this prediction was not historically accurate.


===Ancient Mosque in Jerusalem===
===Ancient Mosque in Jerusalem===
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=== Hāmān in ancient Egypt ===
=== Hāmān in ancient Egypt ===
The Quran places a man called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haman_(Islam) Hāmān (هامان)] as an enemy of the jews being a court official, military commander, and high priest of the Pharoah in ancient Egypt in the time of Moses. A man also called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haman Hāmān הָמָן] with similar characteristics, also appears in the biblical Book of Esther where Haman is a counsellor of Ahasuerus, king of the Achaemenid Persian Empire and an enemy of the Jews, more than a millennia apart in different parts of the world. He appears alongside another character [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korah Qorah] who also rebels against Moses at a different time in the bible:
The Quran places a man called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haman_(Islam) Hāmān (هامان)] as an enemy of the jews being a court official, military commander, and high priest of the Pharoah in ancient Egypt in the time of Moses. A man also called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haman Hāmān (הָמָן)] with similar characteristics, also appears in the biblical Book of Esther where Haman is a counsellor of Ahasuerus, king of the Achaemenid Persian Empire and an enemy of the Jews, more than a millennia apart in different parts of the world. He appears alongside another character [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korah Qorah] who also rebels against Moses at a different time in the bible:
{{Quote|{{Quran|40|24}}|Unto Pharaoh and Haman and Qorah, but they said: A lying sorcerer!}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|40|24}}|Unto Pharaoh and Haman and Qorah, but they said: A lying sorcerer!}}
This may have been done for literary/storytelling purposes:
This may have been done for literary/storytelling purposes:
{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. The Qur'an and its Biblical Subtext (Routledge Studies in the Qur'an) (pp. 212-213). Taylor and Francis.|The pairing of Qorah and Haman, if not in line with the Biblical account, is hardly unreasonable in literary terms. Both acted as the nemesis of God’s servant (Qorah of Moses, Haman of Mordecai). Qorah was extremely wealthy. Haman was extremely powerful. The argument that the  is somehow wrong or confused by placing Haman and Qorah in Egypt (or, for that matter, that the Talmud is wrong by placing Jethro, Balaam, and Job there) seems to me essentially irrelevant. The  concern is not simply to record Biblical information but to shape that information for its own purposes. The more interesting question is therefore why the  connects Haman and Qorah with the story of Pharaoh. The answer, it seems, is that the Pharaoh story is to the  a central trope about human conceit and rebelliousness, on the one hand, and divine punishment, on the other. Accordingly the characters of Haman and Qorah, and the legend of the Tower of Babel, find their way into the  account of Pharaoh. Thereby the  connects this account to its lessons elsewhere on the mastery of God over creation.}}
{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. The Qur'an and its Biblical Subtext (Routledge Studies in the Qur'an) (pp. 212-213). Taylor and Francis.|The pairing of Qorah and Haman, if not in line with the Biblical account, is hardly unreasonable in literary terms. Both acted as the nemesis of God’s servant (Qorah of Moses, Haman of Mordecai). Qorah was extremely wealthy. Haman was extremely powerful. The argument that the  is somehow wrong or confused by placing Haman and Qorah in Egypt (or, for that matter, that the Talmud is wrong by placing Jethro, Balaam, and Job there) seems to me essentially irrelevant. The  concern is not simply to record Biblical information but to shape that information for its own purposes. The more interesting question is therefore why the  connects Haman and Qorah with the story of Pharaoh. The answer, it seems, is that the Pharaoh story is to the  a central trope about human conceit and rebelliousness, on the one hand, and divine punishment, on the other. Accordingly the characters of Haman and Qorah, and the legend of the Tower of Babel, find their way into the  account of Pharaoh. Thereby the  connects this account to its lessons elsewhere on the mastery of God over creation.}}
==== Other Mesopotamian elements in the Egyptian story, including baked clay to make lofty towers to the heavens ====
There is more evidence of Hāmān being out of place in the Qur'an, with the story linking ancient Persian elements to Moses and the Pharoah. We see for example in the Torah [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2011%3A1-9&version=NIV Genesis 11:1-9] with the 'Tower of Babel' story (where a tower to the heavens is built by a rebellious people but they are blocked by god) seemingly inserted into the ancient Egyptian setting, as was common in Late Antiquity where Babylonian and Egyptian courts were often interchangeable in story retellings<ref>Silverstein, Adam J.. ''Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands'' (Oxford Studies in the Abrahamic Religions) (p. 32). OUP Oxford. Kindle Edition.</ref> (regardless of historical accuracy).{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2011%3A1-9&version=NIV The Book of Genesis 11:1-9]|2=1 Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. 2 As people moved eastward,[a] they found a plain in Shinar[b] and settled there <u>3 They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake them thoroughly.” They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. 4 Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves; otherwise we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.”</u> 5 But the Lord came down to see the city and <u>the tower</u> the people were building. 6 The Lord said, “If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. 7 Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other.” <u>8 So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city.</u> 9 That is why it was called Babel[c]—because there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth.}}As Silverstein (2012) states these 'Hāmāns' are in fact related, and notes there are other common Mesopotamian elements in the Qur'an and Islamic exegesis that support association between them.<ref>''The Qur'anic Pharaoh.'' Adam Silverstein. Taylor and Francis. Found in: ''pp467 - pp477. New Perspectives on the Qur'an. The Qur'an in its Historical Context 2''. Edited By Gabriel Reynolds. Imprint Routledge. DOI <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813539</nowiki> eBook ISBN9780203813539</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|28|38}}|“Firʿawn said: ‘O Haman! Light me a (kiln to bake bricks) out of clay, and build me a lofty tower (ṣarḥ), that I may ascend to the god of Moses:  though I think (Moses) is a liar!’ ” }}{{Quote|{{Quran|40|36-37}}|"Firʿawn said: ‘O Haman! Build me a lofty tower (ṣarḥ), that I may reach the asbāb – the asbāb of the heavens, so that I may ascend to the god of  Moses: though I think (Moses) is a liar!’ ”}}
Many modern academics have assumed it takes from the tower of Babel story too.<ref>Ibid. pp. 469.</ref> Several key aspects highlighted by Silverstein are:<ref>Ibid. pp. 470-471</ref>
# The use of baked clay to build the tower, which was typical of ancient Mesopotamian architecture but not of Egyptian.
# The parallel of where people in Shinar (Mesopotamia) built a tower to reach the heavens, challenging God; both the Tower of Babel and the ṣarḥ serve a similar purpose: attempts to defy or reach God, both of which are blocked.
# The many associations of the two stories in Islamic exegesis such as early Muslim scholars often conflating tyrants like Nimrod (who builds the tower in extra-biblical traditions) and Pharaoh in their exegesis. Or having this specific pharaoh come 'from the east',<ref>Ibid. pp. 472-473</ref> and Silverstein (2008) notes exegetes often have these vastly separate empire leaders both be related descendants of the Amalekites (an ancient enemy tribe of Israel), linking them.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/30959178/Hamans_transition_from_the_Jahiliyya_to_Islam ''Haman's transition from the Jahiliyya to Islam.''] ''pp. 297.'' Adam Silverstein. 2008, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam.</ref>
This has long been noticed by classical Christian apologists,<ref>E.g. Silverstein (2012) pp. 469. notes that [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Marracci Father Marraccio], confessor to Pope Innocent XI, who published his annotated translation of the Qurʾān (into Latin) in the late seventeenth century made this connection as a critique of Islam.
Silverstein, Adam J.. ''Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands'' (Oxford Studies in the Abrahamic Religions) (p. 20). 2018. OUP Oxford. Kindle Edition. Notes:
''"Similarly, Henri Lammens, (1862-d.1937) a Christian clergyman himself, and a scholar of Islam, calls the Pharaonic context in which Haman appears in the Qur’ān “the most glaring anachronism”,<sup>11</sup> and Eisenberg, in the first edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam, states, “That Muhammad placed Haman in this period betrays his confused knowledge of history.”"''</ref> and continues in modern times, particularly around the use of '''baked bricks with many contend are another historical error.'''<ref>[https://adamsilverstein.huji.ac.il/publications/quranic-pharaoh Silverstein (2012)] also notes this online debate in pp. 469, see modern arguments and counter arguments here:
See answering-Islam's original page on baked bricks in the tower, followed by Islamic-awareness's response, followed by answering-islam's rebuttal.
https://www.answering-islam.org/Index/B/bricks.html (original Baked Bricks as an error article from Christian Apologists)
https://www.islamic-awareness.org/quran/contrad/external/burntbrick (Islamic Awareness's Response article)
https://www.answering-islam.org/Responses/Saifullah/bricks2.htm (Rebuttals to the Islamic Awareness article)</ref> As Egyptologists note that while known about, baked clay is rare for ancient Egyptian structures during ancient times, and not the likely choice for Pharoah to request from Hāmān.<ref>E.g. ([https://ia601308.us.archive.org/24/items/cu31924102198896/cu31924102198896.pdf Manual of Egyptian Archaeology], G. Maspero, H. Grevel,) White Press. Originally published in 1902.
''pp3 "The ordinary Egyptian brick is made of mud, mixed with a little sand and chopped straw, moulded into oblong bricks and dried in the sun." (not burned)''
''pp.4-5 "The ordinary burnt brick does not appear to have been in common use before the Greco-Roman period, although some are known of Ramesside times…. …The ordinary Egyptian brick is a mere oblong block of mud mixed with chopped straw and a little sand, and dried in the sun""''
([https://ia601305.us.archive.org/16/items/egyptiana00smit/egyptiana00smit.pdf Egyptian Architecture as Cultural Expression], American Life Foundation, 1938, Earl Baldwin Smith, page 7.)
''"By the end of the III Dynasty the Egyptians were masters of such essentials of brick architecture as the arch and vault. Kiln-baked brick was almost never used, and a few examples of glazed tile, appearing in a highly developed technique in both the I and III Dynasties, prove that it was not technical ignorance, even at an early date, which kept the Egyptians from developing the possibilities of this method of wall decoration and protection…."''
''"…Although Egypt had an old and fully developed tradition of brick architecture, she never evolved, as did Mesopotamia, a monumental style in this material. While brick continued to be the most common building material throughout Egyptian history, it was used more for practical construction than for important monuments."''</ref>
Silverstein (2008)<ref>Adam Silverstein. 2008. [https://www.academia.edu/30959178/Hamans_transition_from_the_Jahiliyya_to_Islam ''Haman's transition from the Jahiliyya to Islam.''] ''pp. 301-303.''</ref> and (2012)<ref name=":0">Silverstein 2012. The Qur'anic Pharoah. pp. 474-475</ref> notes this transformation likely occurred because the story is based on an older but still very popular Mesopotamian story in the near-east, of Ahiqar the sage, where an Egyptian pharaoh challenges the Assyrian ruler to build a tower to the heavens; which left its mark on Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures. The story of Aḥīqar is alluded to in the Book of Tobit (second century BCE) directly, but with Haman replaced by a similarly evil character in the story "Nādān" with a similar sounding (the C1āC2āC3 pattern of “Nādān” easily lends itself to a corruption in the form of “Hāmān”) rhyming name, suggesting the characters of separate stories began to mix.<ref name=":0" />
More connections include the towers of [https://www.britannica.com/technology/ziggurat ziggurats] (large, terraced, stepped temple towers built in ancient Mesopotamia made with baked brick exterior) likely being the inspiration of Earth to heaven towers "...''although they are ascendable nowadays, pyramids at the time were not “stepped” in the way that Babylonian  ziggurats are; they were smooth and could not be climbed. In fact, Babylonian  ziggurats are a much more likely candidate for being the inspiration behind both  the Tower of Babel and – indirectly – the ṣarḥ. The ancient Babylonians called their temples “ bīt(u) temen šamē u erṣētim ”, a translation of the Sumerian etemenanki, which itself means “the foundation platform of heaven and earth”; as such,  the ziggurat was the link between the heavens and the earth.''<ref>Ibid. pp. 472.</ref>  And in the Qur'an they reach the '[[Cosmology of the Quran#The%20Sky-ways%20(asb%C4%81b)%20of%20the%20Heavens|asbāb]]' of the heavens, whose literal meaning is a cord or rope,<ref>Lane's Lexicon classical Arabic to English Dictionary: [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000009.pdf ''sīn bā bā'' (س ب ب) p. 1285]
See also: Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> has strong imagery parallels in the Aḥīqar story "''Aḥīqar commissioned rope-weavers to produce two ropes of cotton, each two thousand cubits long, that would lift boys borne by eagles high into the air, from where the summit of the tower could be built. The role played in the Aḥīqar story by these overlong ropes strikingly prefigures that which is played in Firʿawn’s ṣarḥ by the asbāb. Presumably, the version of the Aḥīqar story that was familiar in seventh-century Arabia is the version known to Tobit ’s author. That Aḥīqar was known in Muḥammad’s Arabia is indicated by the parallels between some of his maxims and those that are attributed to Luqmān in the Qurʾān.<sup>39</sup> What Aḥīqar and Luqmān have in common, of  course, is that they are both paradigmatic “sages” in the Near East, the adjective ḥakīm being applied to both of them.'' "<ref>Silverstein 2012. pp. 475.</ref>


=== Mecca as a safe sanctuary ===
=== Mecca as a safe sanctuary ===
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And: Noegel, Scott B.; Wheeler, Brannon M.. ''The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism (The A to Z Guide Series Book 176)'' (Kindle Edition pp. 358-359). Scarecrow Press. </ref> Durie (2018) notes that basic biblical narrative material is repurposed in the Qur'an, but sometimes with little awareness of chronological knowledge or wider details,<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion'' (pp. xxv- xxvi Introduction) (Kindle Edition pp. 27-28). Lexington Books.</ref> which given the almost no direct extended citations of the text, suggests Muhammad's information most likely from oral exposure of popular tales rather than detailed readings of the bible.<ref>Ibid. (pp. xxvi Introduction ) (Kindle Edition pp. 28)</ref>  
And: Noegel, Scott B.; Wheeler, Brannon M.. ''The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism (The A to Z Guide Series Book 176)'' (Kindle Edition pp. 358-359). Scarecrow Press. </ref> Durie (2018) notes that basic biblical narrative material is repurposed in the Qur'an, but sometimes with little awareness of chronological knowledge or wider details,<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion'' (pp. xxv- xxvi Introduction) (Kindle Edition pp. 27-28). Lexington Books.</ref> which given the almost no direct extended citations of the text, suggests Muhammad's information most likely from oral exposure of popular tales rather than detailed readings of the bible.<ref>Ibid. (pp. xxvi Introduction ) (Kindle Edition pp. 28)</ref>  


Some examples he cites of the Qur'an showing little interest in historical narrative have already been listed here; such as [[Historical Errors in the Quran#The%20Israelites%20inherit%20Egypt%20as%20well%20as%20Israel/Palestine|Moses taking Egypt]], the [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Samarians%20in%20ancient%20Egypt|Samaria in Moses's time]], [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Haman%20in%20ancient%20Egypt|Hāmān moving time periods]], and also the [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Mary%20as%20Miriam|Mariam/Mary change]]. One aspect not yet mentioned that he notes to support that Muhammad was missing an understanding of the stages of the formation of Israel and it's timeline is Moses telling the people of Israel that god had given them prophets and kings, before the kingdom existed in the first place.
Some examples he cites of the Qur'an showing little interest in historical narrative have already been listed here; such as [[Historical Errors in the Quran#The%20Israelites%20inherit%20Egypt%20as%20well%20as%20Israel/Palestine|Moses taking Egypt]], the [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Samarians%20in%20ancient%20Egypt|Samaria in Moses's time]], [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Haman%20in%20ancient%20Egypt|Hāmān moving time periods]], and also the [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Mary%20as%20Miriam|Mariam/Mary change]]. One aspect not yet mentioned that he notes to support that Muhammad was missing an understanding of the stages of the formation of Israel and its timeline is Moses telling the people of Israel that god had given them prophets and kings, before the kingdom existed in the first place.
{{Quote|Durie, Mark. 2018. Lexington Books. <i>The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion</i> (pp. xxv - xxvi).|In other respects the Biblical timeline has been flattened, so the Qurʾan displays little awareness of stages in the history of Israel. For example, in Q5:20–21 Mūsā addresses his people before they enter the holy land, telling them to remember that Allāh had appointed prophets and kings among them in the past, even though in the Biblical account there were no kings of Israel until some time after Canaan was settled. In spite of this previous account, elsewhere the Qurʾan describes how the people of Israel, after Allāh had drowned “Pharaoh’s people” (and not just his army) in the sea, did not move on toward a promised land, but took over the farms, gardens, and buildings of the Egyptians, succeeding them (Q44:25–28; cf. Q7:136–37).}}{{Quote|{{Quran|5|20-21}}|And when said Musa to his people, "O my people, remember (the) Favor (of) Allah upon you when He placed among you Prophets and <b>made you kings</b> and He gave you what not He (had) given (to) anyone from the worlds. "O my people! <b>Enter the land,</b> the Holy, which (has been) ordained (by) Allah for you and (do) not turn on your backs, then you will turn back (as) losers."}}
{{Quote|Durie, Mark. 2018. Lexington Books. <i>The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion</i> (pp. xxv - xxvi).|In other respects the Biblical timeline has been flattened, so the Qurʾan displays little awareness of stages in the history of Israel. For example, in Q5:20–21 Mūsā addresses his people before they enter the holy land, telling them to remember that Allāh had appointed prophets and kings among them in the past, even though in the Biblical account there were no kings of Israel until some time after Canaan was settled. In spite of this previous account, elsewhere the Qurʾan describes how the people of Israel, after Allāh had drowned “Pharaoh’s people” (and not just his army) in the sea, did not move on toward a promised land, but took over the farms, gardens, and buildings of the Egyptians, succeeding them (Q44:25–28; cf. Q7:136–37).}}{{Quote|{{Quran|5|20-21}}|And when said Musa to his people, "O my people, remember (the) Favor (of) Allah upon you when He placed among you Prophets and <b>made you kings</b> and He gave you what not He (had) given (to) anyone from the worlds. "O my people! <b>Enter the land,</b> the Holy, which (has been) ordained (by) Allah for you and (do) not turn on your backs, then you will turn back (as) losers."}}


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We are told that every 'umma' أمة (people/nation) was sent a messenger.   
We are told that every 'umma' أمة (people/nation) was sent a messenger.   
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|36}}|And <b>We certainly sent into every nation a messenger,</b> [saying], "Worship Allah and avoid ṭāghūt. [false objects of worship]." And among them were those whom Allah guided, and among them were those upon whom error was [deservedly] decreed. So proceed through the earth and observe how was the end of the deniers.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|35|24}}|Surely We have sent you with the truth as a bearer of good news and a warner; and <b>there is not a people but a warner has gone among them.</b>}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|36}}|And <b>We certainly sent into every nation a messenger,</b> [saying], "Worship Allah and avoid ṭāghūt. [false objects of worship]." And among them were those whom Allah guided, and among them were those upon whom error was [deservedly] decreed. So proceed through the earth and observe how was the end of the deniers.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|35|24}}|Surely We have sent you with the truth as a bearer of good news and a warner; and <b>there is not a people but a warner has gone among them.</b>}}
The word for people/nation 'umma' (أمة) is generally interchangeable with words town/city ('madeena' مدينة), and village ('qarya' قرية) in the context of warner's being sent in the Quran.<ref>For example: in ''{{Quran|10|98}}'', the town/village (قرية) of prophet Yunus is mentioned as having believed, implying prophets are sent to smaller areas than one per nation. And again in ''{{Quran|7|101}}'' we are told of earlier 'towns' whose warner's were given miracles, and similarly 'towns' having warnings before their destruction in ''{{Quran|26|208}}.''</ref> They generally mean a group of people residing in a particular place, so people/nation is used for that as well rather than as how we might interpret a nation/people in modern times. For example in Q28:23.
The word for people/nation 'umma' (أمة) is generally interchangeable with the words town/city ('madeena' مدينة), and village ('qarya' قرية) in the context of warners being sent in the Quran.<ref>For example: in ''{{Quran|10|98}}'', the town/village (قرية) of prophet Yunus is mentioned as having believed, implying prophets are sent to smaller areas than one per nation. And again in ''{{Quran|7|101}}'' we are told of earlier 'towns' whose warners were given miracles, and similarly 'towns' having warnings before their destruction in ''{{Quran|26|208}}.''</ref> They generally mean a group of people residing in a particular place, so people/nation is used for that as well rather than as how we might interpret a nation/people in modern times. For example in Q28:23.
{{Quote|{{Quran|28|23}}|And when he came to the well of Madyan, he found there a crowd of people <b>(umma)</b> watering [their flocks], and he found aside from them two women driving back [their flocks]. He said, "What is your circumstance?" They said, "We do not water until the shepherds dispatch [their flocks]; and our father is an old man."}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|28|23}}|And when he came to the well of Madyan, he found there a crowd of people <b>(umma)</b> watering [their flocks], and he found aside from them two women driving back [their flocks]. He said, "What is your circumstance?" They said, "We do not water until the shepherds dispatch [their flocks]; and our father is an old man."}}
Some people sometimes get more than one messenger.
Some people sometimes get more than one messenger.
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|14}}|When We sent to them two but they denied them, so We strengthened them with a third, and they said, "Indeed, we are messengers to you."}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|14}}|When We sent to them two but they denied them, so We strengthened them with a third, and they said, "Indeed, we are messengers to you."}}
We see this too with the Jews having many prophets (though many classical commentaries have interpreted the other prophets in the previous verse ({{Quran|36|14}}) as being Jesus's followers, who is also a Jewish prophet),<ref>E.g. View the classical tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 ''verse 36:14''] on quranx.com</ref> and the Arabs with Abraham coming before Muhammad (Quran 3.96 - 3.97). Some of these messengers are extremely powerful kings such as Suliman, who were are told a kingdom like his will not be given to anyone else ({{Quran|38|35}}), and Dhul Qarnayn ({{Quran|18|84}}), who is given authority over the earth and rides to the rising and setting of the sun.  
We see this too with the Jews having many prophets (though many classical commentaries have interpreted the other prophets in the previous verse ({{Quran|36|14}}) as being Jesus's followers, who is also a Jewish prophet),<ref>E.g. View the classical tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 ''verse 36:14''] on quranx.com</ref> and the Arabs (and Meccans specifically) with Abraham coming before Muhammad (Quran 3.96 - 3.97), and his son Ishmael supposedly building the Ka'ba (Quran 2.125). Some of these messengers are extremely powerful kings such as Suliman, who were are told a kingdom like his will not be given to anyone else ({{Quran|38|35}}), and Dhu'l Qarnayn ({{Quran|18|84}}), who is given authority over the earth and rides to the rising and setting of the sun.  


Despite these prophets supposedly visiting all pre-Islamic people and some ruling mighty empires, there is no trace of their monotheistic mission in any society (the two rulers mentioned only appear in biblical writings<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/question/When-was-the-Bible-written ''When was the Bible written?''] Britannica Entry. www.britannica.com</ref> and separate Christian literature (''see: [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance]]'') written centuries after the events supposedly happened; and are absent from contemporary writings and archaeological evidence). This is extremely odd that the entire administration of the empires (or surrounding one's) had not a left a trace of a monotheistic religion or their message as a warner - which assumingly they would as prophethood became the rulers life's purpose.
Despite these prophets supposedly visiting all pre-Islamic people and some ruling mighty empires, there is no trace of their monotheistic mission in any society (the two rulers mentioned only appear in biblical writings<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/question/When-was-the-Bible-written ''When was the Bible written?''] Britannica Entry. www.britannica.com</ref> and separate Christian literature (''see: [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance]]'') written centuries after the events supposedly happened; and are absent from contemporary writings and archaeological evidence). This is extremely odd that the entire administration of the empires (or surrounding ones) had not a left a trace of a monotheistic religion or their message as a warner - which assumingly they would as prophethood became the rulers life's purpose.


In fact, we see the opposite, with pretty much all ancient societies being polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, manistic (ancestor worship), shamanistic, pantheistic, heliolithic, folk religion or a combination thereof. This includes all major empires from the ancient world such as, but not limited to, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, African, Americas, European, Greek, Nordic, Roman, Chinese, Indian etc. Essentially all ancient cultures were polytheistic, with the idea of monotheism only gradually and slowly appearing as an innovation,<ref>Denova, R. (Emeritus Lecturer in the Early History of Christianity, Department of Religious Studies, University of Pittsburgh) (2019, October 17). [https://www.ancient.eu/article/1454/ ''Monotheism in the Ancient World. Ancient History Encyclopaedia.''] </ref> (rather than appearing and reappearing constantly).
In fact, we see the opposite, with pretty much all ancient societies being polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, manistic (ancestor worship), shamanistic, pantheistic, heliolithic, folk religion or a combination thereof. This includes all major empires from the ancient world such as, but not limited to, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, African, Americas, European, Greek, Nordic, Roman, Chinese, Indian etc. Essentially all ancient cultures were polytheistic, with the idea of monotheism only gradually and slowly appearing as an innovation,<ref>Denova, R. (Emeritus Lecturer in the Early History of Christianity, Department of Religious Studies, University of Pittsburgh) (2019, October 17). [https://www.ancient.eu/article/1454/ ''Monotheism in the Ancient World. Ancient History Encyclopaedia.''] </ref> (rather than appearing and reappearing constantly).
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This also begs the question on how societies for most of human history are to be judged if the message seemingly got lost before anyone ever recorded it, if the sole purpose of man (and [[:en:Jinn|jinn]]) is to worship Allah specifically ({{Quran|51|56}}).  
This also begs the question on how societies for most of human history are to be judged if the message seemingly got lost before anyone ever recorded it, if the sole purpose of man (and [[:en:Jinn|jinn]]) is to worship Allah specifically ({{Quran|51|56}}).  


Interestingly, all of the stories told in the Quran are of well-known Jewish-Christian prophets (''see: [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]'') and three local Arabian prophets Hud, Salih, and Shu'aib. There are none mentioned outside the Near-East and Arabia of antiquity, and nothing about the entire hunter-gather section of humanity which lasted most of the 300,000 years humans have existed,<ref>''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/ultrasocial/our-huntergatherer-heritage-and-the-evolution-of-human-nature/F0FAE24179317811BE1420E9BA5A290E Our Hunter-Gatherer Heritage and the Evolution of Human Nature.]'' Part I - The Evolution of Human Ultrasociality. John M. Gowdy. Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 October 2021.</ref> with the stories taking place in towns that match contemporary one's to Muhammad's time.   
Interestingly, all of the stories told in the Quran are of well-known Jewish-Christian prophets (''see: [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]'') and three local Arabian prophets Hud, Salih, and Shu'aib. There are none mentioned outside the Near-East and Arabia of antiquity, and nothing about the entire hunter-gather section of humanity which lasted most of the 300,000 years humans have existed,<ref>''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/ultrasocial/our-huntergatherer-heritage-and-the-evolution-of-human-nature/F0FAE24179317811BE1420E9BA5A290E Our Hunter-Gatherer Heritage and the Evolution of Human Nature.]'' Part I - The Evolution of Human Ultrasociality. John M. Gowdy. Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 October 2021.</ref> with the stories taking place in towns that match ones contemporary to Muhammad's time.   


Critics argue this missed opportunity to explain the history of the world and what happened elsewhere with the prophets (i.e. the Quran only recalls local tales like a human with knowledge limited to the vicinity would, where it would have looked to someone in living in Arabia at the time, that monotheism was all over the world as the surrounding Byzantine (Roman), Sasanian (Persian) Empires in the North and former Himyarite Kingdom and Aksumite Empire in the South were ''(See: [[Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam#General Judeo-Christian Monotheism in Arabia]]'')), along with the lack of historical evidence of these other messengers where we would expect it, is damning.  
Critics argue this missed opportunity to explain the history of the world and what happened elsewhere with the prophets (i.e. the Quran only recalls local tales like a human with knowledge limited to the vicinity would, where it would have looked to someone in living in Arabia at the time, that monotheism was all over the world as the surrounding Byzantine (Roman), Sasanian (Persian) Empires in the North and former Himyarite Kingdom and Aksumite Empire in the South were ''(See: [[Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam#General Judeo-Christian Monotheism in Arabia]]'')), along with the lack of historical evidence of these other messengers where we would expect it, is damning.  
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Despite these claims in the Quran (as well as hadith and commentaries) of an extremely powerful and at least somewhat imperialistic kingdom in the Near-east/Israel/Palestine region built with supernatural abilities, of which we would expect to see an exceptionally large and unique kingdom in the archaeological record, material evidence for Solomon’s reign, as for that of his father, is scant.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon ''Solomon Britannica Entry''] Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica. </ref> There are also no known writings or stories from surrounding kingdoms in the Near-East and beyond about his reign, of which there were many thriving civilizations across e.g. Egypt, Arabia, Persia and Mesopotamia.
Despite these claims in the Quran (as well as hadith and commentaries) of an extremely powerful and at least somewhat imperialistic kingdom in the Near-east/Israel/Palestine region built with supernatural abilities, of which we would expect to see an exceptionally large and unique kingdom in the archaeological record, material evidence for Solomon’s reign, as for that of his father, is scant.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon ''Solomon Britannica Entry''] Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica. </ref> There are also no known writings or stories from surrounding kingdoms in the Near-East and beyond about his reign, of which there were many thriving civilizations across e.g. Egypt, Arabia, Persia and Mesopotamia.


Instead the closest and main source of information about comes from the bible, with primarily in the First Book of Kings and the Second Book of Chronicles,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon Solomon Britannica Entry]'' Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica.</ref> with the former believed to be written around (c. 550 BC)<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/books-of-Kings Books of Kings Britannica Entry.]'' Bible. History & Society. Scriptures. Philosophy & Religion. Britannica.com</ref> and the latter around 350–300 BC.<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/books-of-the-Chronicles Books of the Chronicles Britannica Entry]''. Old Testament. History & Society. Scriptures. Philosophy & Religion. Britannica.com</ref> The other sources are rabbinic commentaries composed many centuries after that (''see: [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature#Jinn help Solomon build temples]]'').
Instead the closest and main source of information about comes from the bible, primarily in the First Book of Kings and the Second Book of Chronicles,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon Solomon Britannica Entry]'' Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica.</ref> with the former believed to be written around (c. 550 BC)<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/books-of-Kings Books of Kings Britannica Entry.]'' Bible. History & Society. Scriptures. Philosophy & Religion. Britannica.com</ref> and the latter around 350–300 BC.<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/books-of-the-Chronicles Books of the Chronicles Britannica Entry]''. Old Testament. History & Society. Scriptures. Philosophy & Religion. Britannica.com</ref> The other sources are rabbinic commentaries composed many centuries after that (''see: [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature#Jinn help Solomon build temples]]'').


Solomon is supposed to have lived around 1000BC, when there bible which most sources of his life come from,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon Solomon Britannica Entry]'' Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica.</ref> making these sources extremely late, so that only bible literalists, rather than official academics, hold this kingdom's descriptions to be literally true. For a brief summary of scholars in this area, this Smithsonian magazine article: [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/archaeological-dig-reignites-debate-old-testament-historical-accuracy-180979011/ ''An Archaeological Dig Reignites the Debate Over the Old Testament’s Historical Accuracy''] where it is made clear remains do not match these descriptions, with the lack of structures being found making many doubt the existence of any kingdom at all during this time period, and the previous time period it seems Egyptians ruled over the area in discussion. And despite the promising title of the Smithsonian article, the society in question is suggested to be ''a more complex nomadic one'' in the area likely belonging to the Edomites (put forward by Israeli archaeologist Erez Ben-Yosef at Tel-Aviv University), that may have inspired the biblical stories, rather than one corresponding to the supernaturally build vast Islamic structures and wide reaching monotheistic rule.
Solomon is supposed to have lived around 1000BC, preceding the bible which most sources of his life come from,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon Solomon Britannica Entry]'' Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica.</ref> making these sources extremely late, so that only bible literalists, rather than official academics, hold this kingdom's descriptions to be literally true. For a brief summary of scholars in this area, see the Smithsonian magazine article: [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/archaeological-dig-reignites-debate-old-testament-historical-accuracy-180979011/ ''An Archaeological Dig Reignites the Debate Over the Old Testament’s Historical Accuracy''] where it is made clear remains do not match these descriptions, with the lack of structures being found making many doubt the existence of any kingdom at all during this time period, and the previous time period it seems Egyptians ruled over the area in discussion. And despite the promising title of the Smithsonian article, the society in question is suggested to be ''a more complex nomadic one'' in the area likely belonging to the Edomites (put forward by Israeli archaeologist Erez Ben-Yosef at Tel-Aviv University), that may have inspired the biblical stories, rather than one corresponding to the supernaturally build vast Islamic structures and wide reaching monotheistic rule.


As Aren Maeir (Israeli archaeologist and professor in the Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology at Bar-Ilan University) says assessing his work, "''Because scholars have supposedly not paid enough attention to nomads and have over-emphasized architecture, that doesn’t mean the united kingdom of David and Solomon was a large kingdom—there’s simply no evidence of that on any level, not just the level of architecture.''”  
As Aren Maeir (Israeli archaeologist and professor in the Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology at Bar-Ilan University) says assessing his work, "''Because scholars have supposedly not paid enough attention to nomads and have over-emphasized architecture, that doesn’t mean the united kingdom of David and Solomon was a large kingdom—there’s simply no evidence of that on any level, not just the level of architecture.''”  
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=== The Historical Jesus ===
=== The Historical Jesus ===
The Qur'an includes references to [[:en:Isa_al-Masih_(Jesus_Christ)|Jesus (called as Isa in Islam)]], acknowledging him as a prophet of Allah and the Messiah. Unlike the Christian Bible, the Qur'an portrays Jesus as a human being similar to other messengers, not the son of God (E.g. {{Quran|4|171}}, {{Quran|17|111}} and {{Quran|2|116}}). He was also allegedly not actually crucified {{Quran|4|157}}.
The Qur'an includes references to [[:en:Isa_al-Masih_(Jesus_Christ)|Jesus (called 'Isa in Islam)]], acknowledging him as a prophet of Allah and the Messiah. Unlike the Christian Bible, the Qur'an portrays Jesus as a human being similar to other messengers, not the son of God (E.g. {{Quran|4|171}}, {{Quran|17|111}} and {{Quran|2|116}}). He was also allegedly not actually crucified {{Quran|4|157}}.


It states that Jesus preached the Gospel (Injeel) but suggests it has been corrupted, and though what these means exactly is debated (''see: [[:en:Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Corruption_of_Previous_Scriptures|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars: Corruption of Previous Scriptures]]'' and  ''[[Corruption of Previous Scriptures]])'', however the current mainstream Sunni view is that the Christian Scripture (known as the New Testament which contains 4 'gospels'), does not reflect Jesus's original Islamic teachings.<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/47516/what-do-muslims-think-about-the-gospels What Do Muslims Think about the Gospels?] IslamQA. 2023. </ref>
It states that Jesus preached the Gospel (Injeel) but suggests it has been corrupted, and though what these means exactly is debated (''see: [[:en:Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Corruption_of_Previous_Scriptures|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars: Corruption of Previous Scriptures]]'' and  ''[[Corruption of Previous Scriptures]])'', however the current mainstream Sunni view is that the Christian Scripture (known as the New Testament which contains 4 'gospels'), does not reflect Jesus's original Islamic teachings.<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/47516/what-do-muslims-think-about-the-gospels What Do Muslims Think about the Gospels?] IslamQA. 2023. </ref>


While Muslims reject the Christian view of Jesus based on theological grounds, secular Biblical scholarship (separate to Islamic studies) has also long sought to reconstruct the historical Jesus through critical methods rather than faith-based one's, of which the results differ greatly from the Qur'anic portrayal.
While Muslims reject the Christian view of Jesus based on theological grounds, secular Biblical scholarship (separate to Islamic studies) has also long sought to reconstruct the historical Jesus through critical methods rather than faith-based ones, of which the results differ greatly from the Qur'anic portrayal.


'''Imminent Apocalyptic Preacher'''
'''Imminent Apocalyptic Preacher'''
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Jesus was estimated have lived between before approximately 4BCE,<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (pp. 11-12). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.
Jesus was estimated have lived between before approximately 4BCE,<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (pp. 11-12). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.


''..as related by both Matthew and Luke in the New Testament—then he must have been born no later than 4 BCE, the year of..''</ref> and died around the year of 30 CE (for Jesus’ crucifixion).<ref>[https://www.bartehrman.com/when-did-jesus-die/#:~:text=According%20to%20Bart%20Ehrman%2C%20the,30%20CE%20for%20Jesus'%20crucifixion. When Did Jesus Die? Unveiling the Month & Year of His Crucifixion.] Joshua Schachterle, Ph.D. 2024. Bart Ehrman.com </ref> The books that make up the New Testament, documenting Jesus's life and teachings, (and believed by Christians to be divinely inspired writings to cover his teachings, death and salvation) are in mostly consensus to be written in order of seven authentic letters of Paul followed the first Gospel, Mark (~C. 70 C.E), two more inauthentic (source) letters from Paul, followed by The Gospel of Matthew and then The Gospel of Luke, (both~ 80-90 C.E.), five more inauthentic letters attributed to Paul, followed by The Gospel of John (~90-100 C.E.), with the Book of Revelation and several more letters after that.<ref>[https://www.bartehrman.com/bible-in-chronological-order/ Bible in Chronological Order (Every Book Ordered by Date Written)]. Marko Marina, Ph.D. 2024. Bart Ehram.com.  </ref> These books/letters and their approximate dates are in order as follows:
''..as related by both Matthew and Luke in the New Testament—then he must have been born no later than 4 BCE, the year of..''</ref> and died around the year of 30 CE (for Jesus’ crucifixion).<ref>[https://www.bartehrman.com/when-did-jesus-die/#:~:text=According%20to%20Bart%20Ehrman%2C%20the,30%20CE%20for%20Jesus'%20crucifixion. When Did Jesus Die? Unveiling the Month & Year of His Crucifixion.] Joshua Schachterle, Ph.D. 2024. Bart Ehrman.com </ref> The books that make up the New Testament, documenting Jesus's life and teachings, (and believed by Christians to be divinely inspired writings to cover his teachings, death and salvation) are in mostly consensus to be written in order of seven authentic letters of Paul followed the first Gospel, Mark (~C. 70 C.E), two more inauthentic letters from Paul, followed by The Gospel of Matthew and then The Gospel of Luke, (both~ 80-90 C.E.), five more inauthentic letters attributed to Paul, followed by The Gospel of John (~90-100 C.E.), with the Book of Revelation and several more letters after that.<ref>[https://www.bartehrman.com/bible-in-chronological-order/ Bible in Chronological Order (Every Book Ordered by Date Written)]. Marko Marina, Ph.D. 2024. Bart Ehram.com.  </ref> These books/letters and their approximate dates are in order as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|+
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</ref> In fact, the imminent apocalyptic message is completely absent in John, as it became more apparent the prophecy was not happening, and so 'kingdom of heaven' only now becomes a metaphor for Jesus's ministry.<ref>Ibid. pp. 130-131.</ref>  
</ref> In fact, the imminent apocalyptic message is completely absent in John, as it became more apparent the prophecy was not happening, and so 'kingdom of heaven' only now becomes a metaphor for Jesus's ministry.<ref>Ibid. pp. 130-131.</ref>  


So we can trace the development of a Jewish preacher who believed the eschaton was imminent, being changed over time the further away from his message the writer is. Later apocrypha works written after the Gospel of John, and even further away from the time of Jesus, go further in it's denial, and explicitly condemn the view.<ref>Ibid. pp. 131.
So we can trace the development of a Jewish preacher who believed the eschaton was imminent, being changed over time the further away from his message the writer is. Later apocrypha works written after the Gospel of John, and even further away from the time of Jesus, go further in its denial, and explicitly condemn the view.<ref>Ibid. pp. 131.


''This “de-apocalypticizing” of Jesus’ message continues into the second century. In the Gospel of Thomas, for example, written somewhat later than John, there is a clear attack on anyone who believes in a future Kingdom here on earth. In some sayings, for example, Jesus denies that the Kingdom involves an actual place but “is within..''
''This “de-apocalypticizing” of Jesus’ message continues into the second century. In the Gospel of Thomas, for example, written somewhat later than John, there is a clear attack on anyone who believes in a future Kingdom here on earth. In some sayings, for example, Jesus denies that the Kingdom involves an actual place but “is within..''
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=== Destroyed towns nearby Mecca ===
=== Destroyed towns nearby Mecca ===
In addition to Lot above, in a surah said to be revealed in Mecca in the traditional account,<ref>[https://tanzil.net/docs/revelation_ordeR ''Traditional Revelation Order''] (''Taken from [https://playandlearn.org/Articles/HistoryOfQuran.pdf The History of the Quran] by Abu Abd Allah al-Zanjani''). Tanzil Project. (Tanzil is an international Quranic project aimed at providing a highly verified precise Quran text in Unicode.)</ref> a verse brings the attention of the audience to the destruction of the towns and people's around them.
In addition to Lot above, in a surah said to be revealed in Mecca in the traditional account,<ref>[https://tanzil.net/docs/revelation_ordeR ''Traditional Revelation Order''] (''Taken from [https://playandlearn.org/Articles/HistoryOfQuran.pdf The History of the Quran] by Abu Abd Allah al-Zanjani''). Tanzil Project. (Tanzil is an international Quranic project aimed at providing a highly verified precise Quran text in Unicode.)</ref> a verse brings the attention of the audience to the destruction of the towns and peoples around them.
{{Quote|{{Quran|46|27}}|Certainly We have destroyed the towns that were around you, and We have variously paraphrased the signs so that they may come back.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|46|27}}|Certainly We have destroyed the towns that were around you, and We have variously paraphrased the signs so that they may come back.}}
And as Patricia Crone mentioned in her 2008 article [https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/mohammed_3866jsp/ ''What do we actually know about Mohammed?'']  ''<nowiki/>'There were many such ruined sites in northwest Arabia.','' while they are not known to be around Mecca, though archaeological digs there are currently limited.<ref>Schick, Robert, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran/archaeology-and-the-quran-EQSIM_00031?lang=fr ''Archaeology and the Qurʾān'']”, in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Johanna Pink, University of Freiburg. Consulted online on 09 March 2024 <<nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00031</nowiki>></ref>
And as Patricia Crone mentioned in her 2008 article [https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/mohammed_3866jsp/ ''What do we actually know about Mohammed?'']  ''<nowiki/>'There were many such ruined sites in northwest Arabia.','' while they are not known to be around Mecca, though archaeological digs there are currently limited.<ref>Schick, Robert, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran/archaeology-and-the-quran-EQSIM_00031?lang=fr ''Archaeology and the Qurʾān'']”, in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Johanna Pink, University of Freiburg. Consulted online on 09 March 2024 <<nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00031</nowiki>></ref>
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{{Quote|Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 1: Early Meccan Suras: Poetic Prophecy (p. 61-62). Yale University Press.|V. 3 wa-arsala ʿalayhim ṭayran abābīl] <b>Abābīl</b>, a word that is not attested elsewhere, cannot be explained etymologically (for the hypotheses up to now, see FVQ, 44f.). An instance in Umayya ibn abī l-Ṣalt (Schulthess 1911: fragment 4.3) appears to draw from the Qur’an, and therefore should be considered inauthentic. The translation “herds, swarms” would correspond most probably to the intended sense of the verse (cf. Bell 1991: 585).  
{{Quote|Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 1: Early Meccan Suras: Poetic Prophecy (p. 61-62). Yale University Press.|V. 3 wa-arsala ʿalayhim ṭayran abābīl] <b>Abābīl</b>, a word that is not attested elsewhere, cannot be explained etymologically (for the hypotheses up to now, see FVQ, 44f.). An instance in Umayya ibn abī l-Ṣalt (Schulthess 1911: fragment 4.3) appears to draw from the Qur’an, and therefore should be considered inauthentic. The translation “herds, swarms” would correspond most probably to the intended sense of the verse (cf. Bell 1991: 585).  


V. 4 tarmīhim bi-ḥijāratin min sijjīl] The defense of the opponents from Mecca, which is presented in the Qur’an as a miracle, has no parallels in the historical tradition. <b>Sijjīl</b>, another hapaxlegomenon in the Qur’an, is a loan formation according to Jeffery (FVQ, 164), derived from Liat sigillum (cf. Robinson 2001; Frolov 2005). The recourse to a loan word serves to enigmatize, and thus heighten the significance of, the act of annihilation, which is presented in sura’s text as a miraculous intervention by the God worshipped in the local sanctuary.}}
V. 4 tarmīhim bi-ḥijāratin min sijjīl] The defense of the opponents from Mecca, which is presented in the Qur’an as a miracle, has no parallels in the historical tradition. <b>Sijjīl</b>, another hapaxlegomenon in the Qur’an, is a loan formation according to Jeffery (FVQ, 164), derived from Liat sigillum (cf. Robinson 2001; Frolov 2005). The recourse to a loan word serves to enigmatize, and thus heighten the significance of, the act of annihilation, which is presented in sura’s text as a miraculous intervention by the God worshipped in the local sanctuary.}}In many cases we see completely contradictory reports of the meaning of words, often with the origin of the alleged meaning being ascribed to the same member of earlier generations of early Islamic figures, showing these are personal inferences being extrapolated back to earlier respected figures rather than genuine historical memory.<ref>[https://islamicorigins.com/explaining-contradictions-in-exegetical-hadith/ Explaining Contradictions in Exegetical Hadith.] Islamic Origins Blog. Joshua Little. 2023.</ref>


==== Unknown religion in the Qur'an ====
==== Unknown religion in the Qur'an ====
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''There is a difference of opinion over the identity of the Sabians. Sufyan Ath-Thawri said that Layth bin Abu Sulaym said that Mujahid said that, "The Sabians are between the Majus, the Jews and the Christians. They do not have a specific religion.<nowiki>''</nowiki> Similar is reported from Ibn Abi Najih. Similar statements were attributed to `Ata' and Sa`id bin Jubayr. They (others) say that the Sabians are a sect among the People of the Book who used to read the Zabur (Psalms), others say that they are a people who worshipped the angels or the stars. It appears that the closest opinion to the truth, and Allah knows best, is Mujahid's statement and those who agree with him like Wahb bin Munabbih, that the Sabians are neither Jews nor Christians nor Majus nor polytheists. Rather, they did not have a specific religion that they followed and enforced, because they remained living according to their Fitrah (instinctual nature). This is why the idolators used to call whoever embraced Islam a `Sabi', meaning, that he abandoned all religions that existed on the earth. Some scholars stated that the Sabians are those who never received a message by any Prophet. And Allah knows best.'''</ref> This would suggest that the historical context of the Qur'an (and therefore meaning), initially passed through oral methods, is not as well preserved as traditionalist scholars believe, with even the religious environment of preaching being unknown.
''There is a difference of opinion over the identity of the Sabians. Sufyan Ath-Thawri said that Layth bin Abu Sulaym said that Mujahid said that, "The Sabians are between the Majus, the Jews and the Christians. They do not have a specific religion.<nowiki>''</nowiki> Similar is reported from Ibn Abi Najih. Similar statements were attributed to `Ata' and Sa`id bin Jubayr. They (others) say that the Sabians are a sect among the People of the Book who used to read the Zabur (Psalms), others say that they are a people who worshipped the angels or the stars. It appears that the closest opinion to the truth, and Allah knows best, is Mujahid's statement and those who agree with him like Wahb bin Munabbih, that the Sabians are neither Jews nor Christians nor Majus nor polytheists. Rather, they did not have a specific religion that they followed and enforced, because they remained living according to their Fitrah (instinctual nature). This is why the idolators used to call whoever embraced Islam a `Sabi', meaning, that he abandoned all religions that existed on the earth. Some scholars stated that the Sabians are those who never received a message by any Prophet. And Allah knows best.'''</ref> This would suggest that the historical context of the Qur'an (and therefore meaning), initially passed through oral methods, is not as well preserved as traditionalist scholars believe, with even the religious environment of preaching being unknown.
== See Also ==
* [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]


== External Links ==
== External Links ==


* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZhi-e4jPlE&t=660s Part 42: Noah's Flood] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ESfQpmmVig&t=649s Part 13: Christian Teachings in the Quran] ''-'' ''islamwhattheydonttellyou164 - YouTube videos''
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZhi-e4jPlE&t=660s Part 42: Noah's Flood], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UKl9744lWKc Part 75: Crucifixion] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ESfQpmmVig&t=649s Part 13: Christian Teachings in the Quran] ''-'' ''islamwhattheydonttellyou164 - YouTube videos''


== References ==
== References ==
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