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[[File:NaqadCanonizationSchema.jpg|thumb|Developmental canonization of the Quran (reconstruction)<Br>Naqad Islamic Studies Server<ref>The Naqad Islamic Studies server is described as an open resource server for print and online collections that support Late Antique, Near Eastern and Islamic Studies. They write, "This diagram aims to represent the most rigorous academic insights on the topic, and is a collaboration between our contributors and the top Quranic linguists and epigraphers in the field of Quranic studies." [https://twitter.com/NaqadStudies/status/1265265807686340608 Naqad Islamic Studies - Twitter.com]</ref>]] | [[File:NaqadCanonizationSchema.jpg|thumb|Developmental canonization of the Quran (reconstruction)<Br>Naqad Islamic Studies Server<ref>The Naqad Islamic Studies server is described as an open resource server for print and online collections that support Late Antique, Near Eastern and Islamic Studies. They write, "This diagram aims to represent the most rigorous academic insights on the topic, and is a collaboration between our contributors and the top Quranic linguists and epigraphers in the field of Quranic studies." [https://twitter.com/NaqadStudies/status/1265265807686340608 Naqad Islamic Studies - Twitter.com]</ref>]] | ||
This article examines the transmission history of the [[Quran]]. The perfect preservation of the Quran is an article of faith for most schools and sects of Islam and figures highly in the beliefs of Muslims around the divine nature of their religion. The orthodox Islamic scholars argue that the Qur'an today is identical to that received by Prophet [[Muhammad]]. This contention however is challenged both by parts of the Islamic tradition itself and the findings of modern scholarship. | This article examines the transmission history of the [[Quran]]. The perfect preservation of the Quran is an article of faith for most schools and sects of Islam and figures highly in the beliefs of Muslims around the divine nature of their religion. The orthodox Islamic scholars argue that the Qur'an today is identical to that received by Prophet [[Muhammad]]. This contention however is challenged both by parts of the Islamic tradition itself and the findings of modern scholarship. | ||
Before Caliph [[Uthman_ibn_Affan|Uthman]] standardised the Quranic consonantal text (QCT) around 650 CE, large numbers of variants later documented by Muslim scholars were read by various companions of Muhammad, often differing in whole words and phrases. Academic experts have found material support for such reports in some of the oldest Quran manuscripts. There are also hadith reports that substantial numbers of verses had already been lost. The fear of permanently losing verses is said to have motivated the initial collection of the Qur'an under Caliph [[Abu_Bakr_Abdullah_ibn_Uthman|Abu Bakr]]. Notwithstanding a number of scribal errors during the initial copying process, Uthman was essentially successful in stabilising the QCT, or rasm. However, due to limitations in the early stage of Arabic orthography in use at that time, a wide variety of oral readings (qira'at) within this standardised rasm was possible and continued to occur until the oral readings too were stabilised over centuries and orthography developed to more fully document them. Tens of thousands of variants are attributed to readers of the first couple of centuries, which include Muhammad's companions and early reciters, within and outside the standard rasm, besides the ten canonical readings and their transmitters. The vast majority of recitation and printed Qurans in use today are based on the transmission of Hafs from the reading of 'Asim. | |||
==Introduction== | ==Introduction== | ||
| Line 372: | Line 374: | ||
===Relationship between Qira'at and Ahruf=== | ===Relationship between Qira'at and Ahruf=== | ||
The legitimacy of variant oral readings is derived from some hadith narrations that the Qur'an was revealed to Muhammad in seven ahruf. The word ahruf literally means words or letters, but is commonly translated as modes of recitation. The nature of these ahruf generated a wide range of theories, some more plausible than others.<ref>These are summarised in Ahmad 'Ali al Imam (1998), "Variant Readings of the Quran: A critical study of their historical and linguistic origins", Institute of Islamic Thought: Virginia, USA, pp.9-20</ref> A popular, though problematic theory was that these were dialects of seven Arab tribes, and only one, that of the Quraysh was retained by Uthman. However, most variants among the canonical readings are not of a dialect nature<ref>Melchert, Christopher [www.jstor.org/stable/25728289 The Relation of the Ten Readings to One Another / العلاقة بين القراءات العشر. | The legitimacy of variant oral readings is derived from some hadith narrations that the Qur'an was revealed to Muhammad in seven ahruf. The word ahruf literally means words or letters, but is commonly translated as modes of recitation. The nature of these ahruf generated a wide range of theories, some more plausible than others.<ref>These are summarised in Ahmad 'Ali al Imam (1998), "Variant Readings of the Quran: A critical study of their historical and linguistic origins", Institute of Islamic Thought: Virginia, USA, pp.9-20</ref> A popular, though problematic theory was that these were dialects of seven Arab tribes, and only one, that of the Quraysh was retained by Uthman. However, most variants among the canonical readings are not of a dialect nature<ref>Melchert, Christopher [www.jstor.org/stable/25728289 The Relation of the Ten Readings to One Another / العلاقة بين القراءات العشر.] Journal of Qur'anic Studies, vol. 10, no. 2, 2008, pp. 73–87</ref>. It also makes little sense of {{Bukhari|9|93|640}} in which Muhammad appealed to ahruf when two companions who were both of the Qureshi tribe disagreed on a reading. A more tenable view is that the ahruf represent variant readings at certain points in the Quran. | ||
A related question on which scholars differed was whether or not all the ahruf were preserved. One group including ibn Hazm (d.1064 CE) believed that all seven ahruf were accomodated by the Uthmanic rasm (consonantal skeleton), finding it unimaginable that anything would be omitted.<ref>Nasser, S. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mRAzAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover ''The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Qurʾān: The Problem of Tawātur and the Emergence of Shawādhdh''], Leiden, Boston:Brill, 2013, p.83</ref>. Al-Tabari argued that only one harf was preserved by Uthman (which he interpreted to mean the dialect of the Quraysh), while Ibn al Jazari said the view of most scholars is that only as many of the ahruf as the Uthmanic rasm accommodated were preserved<ref>Ahmad 'Ali al Imam (1998), "Variant Readings of the Quran: A critical study of their historical and linguistic origins", Institute of Islamic Thought: Virginia, USA, pp.65-67</ref>. Indeed, this latter is more viable theologically, for the non-Uthmanic companion readings must be fraudulent under the first view, and problems with the second view include those mentioned above. | A related question on which scholars differed was whether or not all the ahruf were preserved. One group including ibn Hazm (d.1064 CE) believed that all seven ahruf were accomodated by the Uthmanic rasm (consonantal skeleton), finding it unimaginable that anything would be omitted.<ref>Nasser, S. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mRAzAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover ''The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Qurʾān: The Problem of Tawātur and the Emergence of Shawādhdh''], Leiden, Boston:Brill, 2013, p.83</ref>. Al-Tabari argued that only one harf was preserved by Uthman (which he interpreted to mean the dialect of the Quraysh), while Ibn al Jazari said the view of most scholars is that only as many of the ahruf as the Uthmanic rasm accommodated were preserved<ref>Ahmad 'Ali al Imam (1998), "Variant Readings of the Quran: A critical study of their historical and linguistic origins", Institute of Islamic Thought: Virginia, USA, pp.65-67</ref>. Indeed, this latter is more viable theologically, for the non-Uthmanic companion readings must be fraudulent under the first view, and problems with the second view include those mentioned above. | ||
| Line 398: | Line 400: | ||
The Hafs reading is the more common and used in most areas of the Islamic world. Warsh is used mainly in West and North-West Africa as well as by the Zaydiya in Yemen. Here are some of the differences. | The Hafs reading is the more common and used in most areas of the Islamic world. Warsh is used mainly in West and North-West Africa as well as by the Zaydiya in Yemen. Here are some of the differences. | ||
{| class="wikitable" width=" | {| class="wikitable" width="80%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" border="1" align="center" | ||
!Verse | !Verse | ||
!Hafs | !Hafs | ||
!Warsh | !Warsh | ||
!Notes | !Notes | ||
! | !Variants translation, transliteration, and Arabic script | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|2|125}} | |{{Quran|2|125}} | ||
| Line 409: | Line 411: | ||
|watakhazu (they have taken) | |watakhazu (they have taken) | ||
| | | | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/2/vers/125 2 | |[https://quran.com/2/125?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/2/vers/125 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=2&aya=125 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|2|140}} | |{{Quran|2|140}} | ||
| Line 415: | Line 417: | ||
|yaquluna (They say) | |yaquluna (They say) | ||
| | | | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/2/vers/140 2 | |[https://quran.com/2/140?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/2/vers/140 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=2&aya=140 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|2|184}} | |{{Quran|2|184}} | ||
| Line 421: | Line 423: | ||
|masakeena (poor people) | |masakeena (poor people) | ||
|Instruction on mitigating a broken fast | |Instruction on mitigating a broken fast | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/2/vers/184 2 | |[https://quran.com/2/184?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/2/vers/184 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=2&aya=184 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|3|81}} | |{{Quran|3|81}} | ||
| Line 427: | Line 429: | ||
|ataynakum (We have given) | |ataynakum (We have given) | ||
|These words are in a quote. They can't both be right. | |These words are in a quote. They can't both be right. | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/3/vers/81 3 | |[https://quran.com/3/81?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/3/vers/81 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=3&aya=81 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|3|146}} | |{{Quran|3|146}} | ||
| Line 433: | Line 435: | ||
|qutila (was killed) | |qutila (was killed) | ||
|The Warsh version better fits verse 3.144 | |The Warsh version better fits verse 3.144 | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/3/vers/146 3 | |[https://quran.com/3/144?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/3/vers/146 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=3&aya=146 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|7|57}} | |{{Quran|7|57}} | ||
| Line 439: | Line 441: | ||
|nushra (disperse) | |nushra (disperse) | ||
| | | | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/7/vers/57 7 | |[https://quran.com/7/57?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/7/vers/57 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=7&aya=57 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|12|64}} | |{{Quran|12|64}} | ||
| Line 445: | Line 447: | ||
|khayrun hifthan (best at guarding) | |khayrun hifthan (best at guarding) | ||
|This is in a quote of Joseph's father. Why the variation? | |This is in a quote of Joseph's father. Why the variation? | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/12/vers/64 12 | |[https://quran.com/12/64?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/12/vers/64 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=12&aya=64 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|19|19}} | |{{Quran|19|19}} | ||
| Line 453: | Line 455: | ||
The Sanaa 1 palimpsest gives a 3rd variant, li-nahaba, "that We may bestow"<ref name="li-yahaba-li-nahaba" /> | The Sanaa 1 palimpsest gives a 3rd variant, li-nahaba, "that We may bestow"<ref name="li-yahaba-li-nahaba" /> | ||
In mushafs based on the Warsh transmission (and the reading of Abu Amr), unusual orthography is required due to the ya violating the Uthmanic rasm.<ref>In Kufic manuscripts the ya appears in red ink, and printed copies have it in superscript above the alif, which is the right arm of the lam-alif in maghribi script. See Puin, G. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6dqoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 Vowel letters and ortho-epic writing in the Qur'an] in Reynolds, S (ed.) New Perspectives on the Qur'an: The Qur'an in Its Historical Context 2, Routledge 2011 pp.176-177 and p.15 in Dutton, Y. (2000) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25727969 Red Dots, Green Dots, Yellow Dots and Blue: Some Reflections on the Vocalisation of Early Qur'anic Manuscripts (Part II)], Journal of Qur'anic Studies, Vol. 2(1) pp.1-24</ref> | In mushafs based on the Warsh transmission (and the reading of Abu Amr), unusual orthography is required due to the ya violating the Uthmanic rasm.<ref>In Kufic manuscripts the ya appears in red ink, and printed copies have it in superscript above the alif, which is the right arm of the lam-alif in maghribi script. See Puin, G. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6dqoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 Vowel letters and ortho-epic writing in the Qur'an] in Reynolds, S (ed.) New Perspectives on the Qur'an: The Qur'an in Its Historical Context 2, Routledge 2011 pp.176-177 and p.15 in Dutton, Y. (2000) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25727969 Red Dots, Green Dots, Yellow Dots and Blue: Some Reflections on the Vocalisation of Early Qur'anic Manuscripts (Part II)], Journal of Qur'anic Studies, Vol. 2(1) pp.1-24</ref> | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/19/vers/19 19 | |[https://quran.com/19/19?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/19/vers/19 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=19&aya=19 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|21|4}} | |{{Quran|21|4}} | ||
| Line 459: | Line 461: | ||
|qul (Say:) | |qul (Say:) | ||
| | | | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/21/vers/4 21 | |[https://quran.com/21/4?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/21/vers/4 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=21&aya=4 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|43|19}} | |{{Quran|43|19}} | ||
| Line 465: | Line 467: | ||
|inda (with) | |inda (with) | ||
| | | | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/43/vers/19 43 | |[https://quran.com/43/19?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/43/vers/19 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=43&aya=19 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|57|24}} | |{{Quran|57|24}} | ||
| Line 471: | Line 473: | ||
|Allaha alghaniyyu (Allah is self sufficient) | |Allaha alghaniyyu (Allah is self sufficient) | ||
|This was also one of the regional Uthmanic rasm variants with no obvious value | |This was also one of the regional Uthmanic rasm variants with no obvious value | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/57/vers/24 57. | |[https://quran.com/57/24?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/57/vers/24 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=57&aya=24 nquran.com] | ||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 478: | Line 480: | ||
There are many more differences between other transmissions besides those of Hafs and Warsh. All are available in printed form and in the online sources mentioned above. The following are a few examples, mostly of conflicting variants in quoted dialogue incidents. | There are many more differences between other transmissions besides those of Hafs and Warsh. All are available in printed form and in the online sources mentioned above. The following are a few examples, mostly of conflicting variants in quoted dialogue incidents. | ||
{| class="wikitable" width=" | {| class="wikitable" width="80%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" border="1" align="center" | ||
!Verse | !Verse | ||
!Reading 1 | !Reading 1 | ||
!Reading 2 | !Reading 2 | ||
!Notes | !Notes | ||
! | !Variants translation, transliteration, and Arabic script | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|5|6}} | |{{Quran|5|6}} | ||
| Line 489: | Line 491: | ||
|The others read wa-'arjulakum (your feet [accusative case]) | |The others read wa-'arjulakum (your feet [accusative case]) | ||
|The grammatical variance caused different rulings on wudu between Sunni and Shi'i (whether to rub or wash the feet)<ref>Hussein Abdul-Raof, "Theological approaches to Qur'anic exergesis", London and New York: Routledge, 2012, p.101</ref> | |The grammatical variance caused different rulings on wudu between Sunni and Shi'i (whether to rub or wash the feet)<ref>Hussein Abdul-Raof, "Theological approaches to Qur'anic exergesis", London and New York: Routledge, 2012, p.101</ref> | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/5/vers/6 5 | |[https://quran.com/5/6?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/5/vers/6 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=5&aya=6 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|17|102}} | |{{Quran|17|102}} | ||
| Line 495: | Line 497: | ||
|The others read 'alimta (You have known) | |The others read 'alimta (You have known) | ||
|Moses speaking to Pharoah | |Moses speaking to Pharoah | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/17/vers/102 17 | |[https://quran.com/17/102?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/17/vers/102 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=17&aya=102 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|20|96}} | |{{Quran|20|96}} | ||
| Line 501: | Line 503: | ||
|The others read lam yabsuroo (they did not percieve) | |The others read lam yabsuroo (they did not percieve) | ||
|Samiri speaking to Moses | |Samiri speaking to Moses | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/20/vers/96 20 | |[https://quran.com/20/96?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/20/vers/96 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=20&aya=96 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|12|12}} | |{{Quran|12|12}} | ||
| Line 507: | Line 509: | ||
|The others read narta' wa-nal'ab (we may eat well and play) | |The others read narta' wa-nal'ab (we may eat well and play) | ||
|Joseph's brothers talking to their father | |Joseph's brothers talking to their father | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/12/vers/12 12 | |[https://quran.com/12/12?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/12/vers/12 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=12&aya=12 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|12|49}} | |{{Quran|12|49}} | ||
| Line 513: | Line 515: | ||
|The others read ya'siroona (they will press) | |The others read ya'siroona (they will press) | ||
|Joseph speaking to the King | |Joseph speaking to the King | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/12/vers/49 12 | |[https://quran.com/12/49?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/12/vers/49 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=12&aya=49 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|12|63}} | |{{Quran|12|63}} | ||
| Line 519: | Line 521: | ||
|The others read naktal (we will be given measure) | |The others read naktal (we will be given measure) | ||
|Joseph's brothers talking to their father | |Joseph's brothers talking to their father | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/12/vers/63 12 | |[https://quran.com/12/63?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/12/vers/63 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=12&aya=63 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|11|81}} | |{{Quran|11|81}} | ||
| Line 525: | Line 527: | ||
|The others read 'illa mra'ataka (except your wife [accusative case]) | |The others read 'illa mra'ataka (except your wife [accusative case]) | ||
|These variants give rise to conflicting instructions from the angels to Lot<ref>See the explanation in [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=11&tAyahNo=81&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn], which is also common among early scholars. Some later scholars suggested various unlikely ways to reconcile this variation.</ref> | |These variants give rise to conflicting instructions from the angels to Lot<ref>See the explanation in [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=11&tAyahNo=81&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn], which is also common among early scholars. Some later scholars suggested various unlikely ways to reconcile this variation.</ref> | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/11/vers/81 11 | |[https://quran.com/11/81?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/11/vers/81 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=11&aya=81 nquran.com] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{Quran|37|12}} | |{{Quran|37|12}} | ||
|Hamza and al-Kisa'i read ' | |Hamza and al-Kisa'i read 'ajibtu (I was amazed) | ||
|The others read ' | |The others read 'ajibta (you were amazed) | ||
|Allah feels the emotion of amazement | |Allah feels the emotion of amazement | ||
|[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/37/vers/12 37 | |[https://quran.com/37/12?translations=149 Bridges translation]<BR>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/lesarten/index/sure/37/vers/12 Corpus Coranicum]<BR>[https://www.nquran.com/ar/index.php?group=ayacompare&sora=37&aya=12 nquran.com] | ||
|} | |} | ||