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Modern Islamic Scholars claim that modern science has proved that roots of mountains go inside the earth like pegs, therefore it is a miracle of Quran to tell it correctly 1400 years ago.  
The [[Qur'an|Quran]] has a particular conception of the nature of mountains, their formation, and the geological role they play that is is referenced in multiple verses and several [[Hadith|hadiths]]. In recent times, many Islamic scholars have argued that this conception is both scientifically sound and and instance of [[Scientific Miracles in the Quran|miraculous scientific foreknowledge]] on the part of the Quran which, they argue, could not have arrived at the conception it holds without divine insight. Individuals key to the popularization of this idea include the [[Apologists|apologists]] I. A. Ibrahim and [[Zakir Naik]], Professor Zaghloul Raghib El Naggar (a geologist specializing in biostratification), and the Saudi-financed surgeon [[Bucailleism|Dr. Maurice Bucaille]].


While the critics not only deny it to be a miracle of Quran, but also claim that Quran made two scientific mistakes about the mountains.  
Parties advocating the description of mountains found in the Quran as a scientific miracle identify two key claims made in the scripture: (1) that Mountains can be described as 'pegs' and (2) that mountains play some role in 'stabilizing the Earth' - these two ideas, advocates hold, are evidence of a miraculous scientific insight. Critics challenge the advocates' interpretations of the relevant verses as well as their use and presentation of scientific information on the topic. Critics further claim that the Qur'an is scientifically inaccurate in its description of a specific time period in which mountains were supposedly formed and Allah having cast them into the earth.


===Advocate's claim: Quran rightly told 1400 years ago that mountains works as pegs/anchors in order to stabilize the otherwise shaking earth===
=Formation of mountains in the Quran=
They quote the following verses as a proof.
==Stage in the creation account==
{{Quote|[https://quranx.com/78.7 Quran 78:7]|وَٱلْجِبَالَ أَوْتَادًا</br>
And the mountains as '''pegs'''?}}{{Quote|[https://quranx.com/21.31 Quran 21:31]|وجعلنا في الأرض رواسي أن تميد بهم </br>


And We made on the Earth stabilisers (i.e. Mountains), so that it would not tumble with you.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|41|8|11}}|Say, "Do you indeed disbelieve in He who created the earth in two days and attribute to Him equals? That is the Lord of the worlds." And He placed on the earth firmly set mountains over its surface, and He blessed it and determined therein its [creatures'] sustenance in four days without distinction - for [the information] of those who ask. Then He directed Himself to the heaven while it was smoke and said to it and to the earth, "Come [into being], willingly or by compulsion." They said, "We have come willingly." And He completed them as seven heavens within two days and inspired in each heaven its command. And We adorned the nearest heaven with lamps and as protection. That is the determination of the Exalted in Might, the Knowing.}}
Please also see the verses [https://quranx.com/15.19 15:19], [https://quranx.com/16:15 16:15], and [https://quranx.com/31.10 31:10]
==The idea of Mountains being Pegs had already existed among the Arabs before Muhammad==
The idea of mountains being pegs even existed among the Arabs before Muhammad. For example, Ka’ab was one of the ancestor of Muhammad. This Ka’ab also declared mountains to be pegs long before Muhammad.


{{Quote|[http://web.archive.org/web/20170921141119/http://islamport.com/d/3/tkh/1/78/1963.html History of Ya'qubi]|فأما كعب بن لؤي، فكان أعظم ولد أبيه قدرا، وأعظمهم شرفا، وكان أول من سمي يوم الجمعة بالجمعة، وكانت العرب تسميه عروبة، فجمعهم فيه، وكان يخطب عليهم، فيقول: اسمعوا، وتعلموا، وافهموا، واعلموا أن الليل ساج، والنهار ضاح، والأرض مهاد، والسماء عماد، '''''والجبال أوتاد'''''، والنجوم أعلام، </br>
The above verses are the Quranic six day creation account. In this description, mountains are created within a four day period (which is usually understood to overlap with the first two day period mentioned in the creation account). Critics note that rather than being confined to a closed period, mountain formation began early in Earth's history due to the process of [[w:Plate techtonics|plate tectonics]] (with accompanying earthquakes), has continued for billions of years, and continues to do so now and into the future. With each plate collision mountains keep on rising higher little by little. And when the plates start to move away from each other, then these mountains start to erode until after millions of years, they completely disappear. On a geological timescale, mountains are not "firmly set", but rather they rise and fall, and are replaced by other mountain ranges over time. For example, there existed no Mount Everest 250 million years ago. The Himilayan mountain range began to grow when two continental plates collided, which will eventually separate again and Everest will gradually erode and disappear completely.  
Ka'ab Bin Lowy was a man of great honour among his ancestors and progeny. He was the first person who gave the name of Friday to the day of Friday. Arabs used to call him 'Aroba. He gathered them and advised them to hear, learn and understand, and to know that night is deserted and silent, while day is full of sunlight, and earth is a cradle while sky is a support, '''and mountains are pegs''', and stars are signs, ...}}


Similarly, other civilizations also had the concept of mountains having roots. For example, we find this concept in bible too.  
Moreover, there are other type of mountains too, which are formed when Lava comes out from inside the earth. When this lava cools down, it forms high and big mountains, which are known as [http://www.universetoday.com/29833/how-mountains-are-formed/ volcanic mountains].


{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jonah%202%3A6&version=NIV (Bible: John 2:6)]|2='''To the roots''' of the mountains I sank down; the earth beneath barred me in forever. But you, LORD my God, brought my life up from the pit.}}Thus, the critics point out that it could not be a miracle of Quran, but it recorded only an old concept.
It is also worth noting that in {{Muslim|39|6707}}, Muhammad elaborates that mountains were created on the second day (Sunday), which is even more specific. Other hadiths quoted by Ibn Kathir in his exegesis for {{Quran|22|47}} ("a day with your Lord is like a thousand years") reported Ibn 'Abbas as stating that each of the six days in which Allah created the heavens and the earth was a thousand years.<ref>Ibn Kathir writes under the commentary of this verse 22:47:
 
{{Quote|1=[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=1&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=22&tAyahNo=47&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Verse Quran 22:47]|2=قال ابن أبي حاتم حدثنا الحسن بن عرفة، حدثني عبدة بن سليمان عن محمد بن عمرو عن أبي سلمة عن أبي هريرة أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال " يدخل فقراء المسلمين الجنة قبل الأغنياء بنصف يوم خمسمائة عام " ورواه الترمذي والنسائي من حديث الثوري عن محمد بن عمرو به، وقال الترمذي حسن صحيح. وقد رواه ابن جرير عن أبي هريرة موقوفاً، فقال حدثني يعقوب، حدثنا ابن علية، حدثنا سعيد الجريري عن أبي نضرة عن سمير بن نهار قال قال أبو هريرة يدخل فقراء المسلمين الجنة قبل الأغنياء بمقدار نصف يوم، قلت وما مقدار نصف يوم؟ قال أو ما تقرأ القرآن؟ قلت بلى، قال { وَإِنَّ يَوْماً عِندَ رَبِّكَ كَأَلْفِ سَنَةٍ مِّمَّا تَعُدُّونَ }. وقال أبو داود في آخر كتاب الملاحم من سننه حدثنا عمرو بن عثمان، حدثنا أبو المغيرة، حدثنا صفوان عن شريح بن عبيد عن سعد بن أبي وقاص عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم أنه قال " إني لأرجو أن لا تعجز أمتي عند ربها أن يؤخرهم نصف يوم " قيل لسعد وما نصف يوم؟ قال خمسمائة سنة. وقال ابن أبي حاتم حدثنا أحمد بن سنان، حدثنا عبد الرحمن بن مهدي عن إسرائيل عن سماك، عن عكرمة عن ابن عباس { وَإِنَّ يَوْماً عِندَ رَبِّكَ كَأَلْفِ سَنَةٍ مِّمَّا تَعُدُّونَ } قال من الأيام التي خلق الله فيها السموات والأرض. ورواه ابن جرير عن ابن بشار عن ابن المهدي، وبه قال مجاهد وعكرمة، ونص عليه أحمد بن حنبل في كتاب الرد على الجهمية، وقال مجاهد هذه الآية كقوله{ يُدَبِّرُ ٱلاَْمْرَ مِنَ ٱلسَّمَآءِ إِلَى ٱلاَْرْضِ ثُمَّ يَعْرُجُ إِلَيْهِ فِى يَوْمٍ كَانَ مِقْدَارُهُ أَلْفَ سَنَةٍ مِّمَّا تَعُدُّونَ } السجدة 5.
==There are 2 Scientific mistakes in Quran regarding the creation of mountains==
Moreover, the critics claim that the writer of Quran made two scientific mistakes regarding the creation of mountains.
 
===First Mistake: Allah 'placed جعل' the Mountains 'from above من فوقها' into the earth according to the Quran===
According to the modern science, mountains are formed  when two plates tectonic collide with each other, and thus the mountains rise '''from within''' the earth.
 
But the Quranic verse 41:10 claimed that Allah 'placed' the mountains 'from above' into the earth.
 
وَ'''جَعَلَ''' فِيهَا رَوَٰسِىَ '''مِن فَوْقِهَا'''
 
And He '''placed''' (Arabic: جعل) in it stabilisers (i.e. mountains) '''from above''' (Arabic: من فوقها).([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Quran Word by Word Translation by Quran Corpus])
 
And He '''placed''' therein firmly-set mountains '''from above it.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Word for Word Dr. Shehnaz Shaikh])
 
And He made in it mountains '''above its surface.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Shakir])
 
And He made on it firm mountains '''from above it.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Dr. Laleh Bakhtiar])
 
He has '''placed''' in it (the earth) firm mountains '''from above it.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Abdul Hye])


And He '''placed''' therein firm mountains '''from above it.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Dr. Kamal Omar])


And He made therein anchorages (i.e., mountains) '''from above it.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Muhammad Mahmoud Ghali]):
Rasool Allah told that the poor people will enter in the paradise half a day before the rich people, '''means 500 years before the rich people (while whole day is equal to 1000 years of people's reckoning)'''. al-Tirmidhi and al-Nisai etc recorded it and al-Tirmidhi said that this tradition is 'Hasan Sahih' (i.e. authentic according to al-Tirmidhi). In another tradition, it was asked from Abu Hurayrah, '''how long is this half day'''? He replied: "Didn't you read Quran?" I said: "Yes." '''Upon that he recited me verse 22:47''' ... Companion S'ad was asked: "'''How long is this half day'''." He replied: "'''500 years'''". Ibn Abbas recited this verse and said that '''this is the length of those 6 days, in which Allah created the heavens and the earth''' (Ibn Jarir). While Imam Ahmed bin Hanbal described it in more clear words in his book "Refutation of al-Jahmia". Mujjahid said that this verse is similar to verse  5 of Surah al-Sajdah [(Quran 32:5) He rules (all) affairs from the heavens to the earth: in the end will (all affairs) go up to Him, '''on a Day, the space whereof will be (as) a thousand years of your reckoning.''']}}</ref> On this basis (and the similar verse {{Quran|70|4}} about five thousand years), advocates argue that "day" (yawm) should not be taken literally. Critics argue that this is a sythesis not apparent in the creation account itself, and in any case 1000 or 5000 years would not indicate that the author was aware of the sheer scale of geological and cosmological time (billions of years).


And He '''placed''' on the earth firmly set mountains '''over its surface.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Sahih International])
==Casting mountains into the earth==


And He '''placed''' in it stabilizers '''from above it.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm The Monotheist Group])
The Quran states that the mountains on Earth's surface were cast upon it by God. The imagery is clear when one considers the verse discussed furher below which describe the mountains as 'pegs'.


And He made/put in it anchors/fixtures/mountains from above it. ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Muhammad Ahmed - Samira]
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|
And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,}}


And in it He '''placed''' mountains as anchors '''from above it.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Faridul Haque]
The word 'he has cast' is ''alqa'' (lam-qaf-ya), which in this form (Arabic verb form IV) is frequently used elsewhere in the Quran to mean throw or cast. It is the same word as is used in {{Quran|3|44}} when lots are cast using pens (it would be easy to imagine that mountains were similarly scattered), and {{Quran|12|10}} when the prophet Yusuf is cast down into the well, and in {{Quran|20|20}} when Moses casts down his staff, which becomes a snake.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000266.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3012 أَلْقَىٰ]</ref>


He '''placed''' therein (i.e. the earth) firm mountains '''from above it.''' ([https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/41/10/default.htm Mohsin Khan & Muhammad al-Hilali])
Again, mountain formation is described as a past event, rather than ongoing process. Furthermore, according to modern science, mountains are not 'placed'/'cast' over earth's surface, but they are formed when two plates tectonics collide with each other (i.e. when earthquake takes place), then the crust of one plate goes upwards and forms a mountain, while the crust of other plate goes downwards.  


Similarly, verse 16:15 is also telling the same thing that Allah CASTE the mountains into the earth.
Some critics also note that in another verse, {{Quran|41|9}} discussed above, Allah placed on the earth mountains "from above it" (min fawqiha من فوقها), though almost all major translations interpret the Arabic simply to mean the mountains are above the earth's surface (both interpretations seem possible based on how the preposition and verb are used in some other verses).
{{Quote|[https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/16/15/default.htm Quran 16:15]|وألقى في الأرض رواسي أن تميد بكم </br>
(Sahih International) And He has '''cast''' into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you,}}
The word 'he has cast' is ''alqa'' (lam-qaf-ya), which in this form (Arabic verb form IV) is frequently used elsewhere in the Quran to mean throw or cast. It is the same word as is used in [https://quranx.com/3.44 Quran 3:44] when lots are cast using pens (it would be easy to imagine that mountains were similarly scattered), and [https://quranx.com/12.10 Quran 12:10] when the prophet Yusuf is cast down into the well, and in [https://quranx.com/20.20 Quran 20:20] when Moses casts down his staff, which becomes a snake.


According to the modern science, mountains are not 'placed'/'cast' over earth's surface, but they are formed when two plates tectonics collide with each other (i.e. when earthquake takes place), then crust of one plate goes upwards and forms a mountain, while the crust of other plate goes downwards.
=Mountains as pegs=


And then this process of colliding of plates tectonics (i.e. earthquakes) continues for millions of years, and with each collision mountains keep on rising high little by little. And when the plates tectonics start to move away from each other, then these high mountains start  to erode and after millions of years, they completely disappear.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|78|6|7}}|Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?


For example, there existed no Mount Everest 250 million years ago. But then two plates tectonics collided with each other, and a small Mount Everest came into being due to that. Then it kept on gaining height with each collision of the plates tectonics. Today it is the highest mountain. It will keep on gaining even more height, but then a time will come, when it will start eroding and will disappear completely.  
The above verse uses the word awtādan, which means stakes placed in the ground<ref>awtādan [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000171.pdf Lane's Lexicon] p. 2917</ref> and also occurs in reference to Pharaoh's stakes for crucifixion in {{Quran|38|12}} and {{Quran|89|10}}.


Moreover, there are other type of mountains too, which are formed when Lava comes out from inside the earth. When this lava cools down, it forms high and big mountains, which are known as [http://www.universetoday.com/29833/how-mountains-are-formed/ Volcanic Mountains].
See also {{Quran|15|19}}, {{Quran|16|15}}, {{quran|21|31}} and {{Quran|31|10}} (discussed further below in the context of stabilising the earth) which all mention Allah casting rawaasiya (steadfast, immovable, anchors, i.e. mountains)<ref name="LexiconRawaasiya">rawaasiya [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000253.pdf Lane's Lexicon] p. 1987</ref> in the earth. Critics would reiterate here that mountains do move over geological time.
===Second Mistake: Allah had already made the mountains on the day of Sunday at time of the creation of the universe===
Quran claims that Allah had already created the mountains on the 2nd day of creation.
{{Quote|1=[https://quranx.com/41.9?context=4 Quran 41:9-11]|2=Say, "Do you indeed disbelieve in He who created '''the earth in two days''' and attribute to Him equals? That is the Lord of the worlds. '''And He placed on the earth firmly set mountains over its surface''', and He blessed it and determined therein its [creatures'] sustenance in (next) four days without distinction - for [the information] of those who ask. Then He directed Himself to the heaven while it was smoke and said to it and to the earth, "Come [into being], willingly or by compulsion." They said, "We have come willingly."}}
And Hadith made it more clear that 2nd day of creation was Sunday, when the mountains were created by Allah. {{Quote|[http://sunnah.com/muslim/52/10 Sahih Muslim]|Abu Huraira reported that Allah's Messenger took hold of my hands and said:


Allah, the Exalted and Glorious, created the clay on Saturday and He created the mountains on Sunday and He created the trees on Monday and He created the things entailing labour on Tuesday and created light on Wednesday and lie caused the animals to spread on Thursday and created Adam (peace be upon him) after 'Asr on Friday; the last creation at the last hour of the hours of Friday, i.e. between afternoon and night.}}
Critics also point out that unlike pegs which are objects placed into something else, mountains caused by plate tectonics are of continuous material as the surrounding crust, albeit of a different shape due to geological processes. Moreover, they do not stake anything to something else since the underside of mountains merely protrude deeper than the surrounding crust into the Earth's mantle, which is molten and not a solid object.
But according to the modern science<ref>[https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a34910714/why-mount-everest-and-swiss-alps-are-getting-taller/ Popular Mechanics]</ref><ref>[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/mountains#:~:text=How%20Are%20Mountains%20Formed%3F,in%20a%20head-on%20collision. National Geographic]</ref>: 


*Mountains had not already been created on the 2nd day of creation of the heavens (universe) and the earth.
*But earth came into being 9 billion years after the heavens (universe).
*And the earth initially consisted of gases and molten surface only. It took billions of more years to come into solid form.
*And even after earth had already come into solid state, still it took billions of years more in the formation of plates tectonics and then mountains.
*And older mountains erode and disappear with time, and new mountains start forming.  
====Islam advocates: The days of creation with Allah were different than days on the Earth and are of 'unspecified' period of time====
Islam advocates claim<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20201103111946/https://www.dar-alifta.org/Foreign/ViewFatwa.aspx?ID=8031]</ref>:
*The days of creation  with Allah are different than the earth.
*Thus those 6 days were of '''unspecified''' period of time.
*Allah didn't tell the length of that period, as humans are unable to '''comprehend''' it.
The Critics of Islam answer that claim of "unspecified time" is false, as the writer of the Quran  described the '''specified time''' in the following verses:
{{Quote|[https://quranx.com/22.47 Quran 22:47]|Yet they ask thee to hasten on the Punishment! But Allah will not fail in His Promise. '''Verily a Day in the sight of thy Lord is like a thousand years of YOUR RECKONING'''.}}{{Quote|[https://quranx.com/32.5 Quran 32:5]|He rules (all) affairs from the heavens to the earth: in the end will (all affairs) go up to Him,''' on a Day, the space whereof will be (as) a thousand years of YOUR RECKONING'''.}}
Thus Sahaba (i.e. companions) believed in it that one day of creation was equal to 1000 years of our reckoning.
Ibn Kathir writes under the commentary of this verse 22:47:
{{Quote|1=[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=1&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=22&tAyahNo=47&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Verse Quran 22:47]|2=قال ابن أبي حاتم حدثنا الحسن بن عرفة، حدثني عبدة بن سليمان عن محمد بن عمرو عن أبي سلمة عن أبي هريرة أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال " يدخل فقراء المسلمين الجنة قبل الأغنياء بنصف يوم خمسمائة عام " ورواه الترمذي والنسائي من حديث الثوري عن محمد بن عمرو به، وقال الترمذي حسن صحيح. وقد رواه ابن جرير عن أبي هريرة موقوفاً، فقال حدثني يعقوب، حدثنا ابن علية، حدثنا سعيد الجريري عن أبي نضرة عن سمير بن نهار قال قال أبو هريرة يدخل فقراء المسلمين الجنة قبل الأغنياء بمقدار نصف يوم، قلت وما مقدار نصف يوم؟ قال أو ما تقرأ القرآن؟ قلت بلى، قال { وَإِنَّ يَوْماً عِندَ رَبِّكَ كَأَلْفِ سَنَةٍ مِّمَّا تَعُدُّونَ }. وقال أبو داود في آخر كتاب الملاحم من سننه حدثنا عمرو بن عثمان، حدثنا أبو المغيرة، حدثنا صفوان عن شريح بن عبيد عن سعد بن أبي وقاص عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم أنه قال " إني لأرجو أن لا تعجز أمتي عند ربها أن يؤخرهم نصف يوم " قيل لسعد وما نصف يوم؟ قال خمسمائة سنة. وقال ابن أبي حاتم حدثنا أحمد بن سنان، حدثنا عبد الرحمن بن مهدي عن إسرائيل عن سماك، عن عكرمة عن ابن عباس { وَإِنَّ يَوْماً عِندَ رَبِّكَ كَأَلْفِ سَنَةٍ مِّمَّا تَعُدُّونَ } قال من الأيام التي خلق الله فيها السموات والأرض. ورواه ابن جرير عن ابن بشار عن ابن المهدي، وبه قال مجاهد وعكرمة، ونص عليه أحمد بن حنبل في كتاب الرد على الجهمية، وقال مجاهد هذه الآية كقوله{ يُدَبِّرُ ٱلاَْمْرَ مِنَ ٱلسَّمَآءِ إِلَى ٱلاَْرْضِ ثُمَّ يَعْرُجُ إِلَيْهِ فِى يَوْمٍ كَانَ مِقْدَارُهُ أَلْفَ سَنَةٍ مِّمَّا تَعُدُّونَ } السجدة 5.
Rasool Allah told that the poor people will enter in the paradise half a day before the rich people, '''means 500 years before the rich people (while whole day is equal to 1000 years of people's reckoning)'''. al-Tirmidhi and al-Nisai etc recorded it and al-Tirmidhi said that this tradition is 'Hasan Sahih' (i.e. authentic according to al-Tirmidhi). In another tradition, it was asked from Abu Hurayrah, '''how long is this half day'''? He replied: "Didn't you read Quran?" I said: "Yes." '''Upon that he recited me verse 22:47''' ... Companion S'ad was asked: "'''How long is this half day'''." He replied: "'''500 years'''". Ibn Abbas recited this verse and said that '''this is the length of those 6 days, in which Allah created the heavens and the earth''' (Ibn Jarir). While Imam Ahmed bin Hanbal described it in more clear words in his book "Refutation of al-Jahmia". Mujjahid said that this verse is similar to verse  5 of Surah al-Sajdah [(Quran 32:5) He rules (all) affairs from the heavens to the earth: in the end will (all affairs) go up to Him, '''on a Day, the space whereof will be (as) a thousand years of your reckoning.''']}}
But modern science told us that creation of universe took billions of years. Therefore, even if we consider 1 day of Allah is equal to 1000 years of our reckoning, still 6 days make only 6000 years of creation, which stays contradictory the modern science.<br />
==Discussions regarding the proposed miracle==
===Isostasy and mountains as peg-like structures===
===Isostasy and mountains as peg-like structures===
====Schematic from Cailleux's ''Anatomy of the Earth''====
====Schematic from Cailleux's ''Anatomy of the Earth''====
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Thus, elevation above sea-level tends to correlate positively with the thickness of the Earth's crust at any given place. The reason why the crust tends to exist in this manner is compared to the same physics of floatation whereby the majority of an iceberg suspended in water extends below sea level and, at the same time, it is the case that the taller the portion of ice above sea level, the deeper the iceberg dips down below.  
Thus, elevation above sea-level tends to correlate positively with the thickness of the Earth's crust at any given place. The reason why the crust tends to exist in this manner is compared to the same physics of floatation whereby the majority of an iceberg suspended in water extends below sea level and, at the same time, it is the case that the taller the portion of ice above sea level, the deeper the iceberg dips down below.  


Advocates of the scientific miracle argue that isostasy affirms the peg-like nature of mountains and that Muhammad could not, in the 7th century, have come to realize this without divine aid. Critics respond to this by arguing that the caption associated with the diagram found in Cailleux's book explicitly points out that the visual representation has had its 'vertical scale greatly exaggerated'.<ref>Click [[:File:Anatomy of the Earth- Cailleux- pp 220-221.jpg|here]] for a more complete view of the page scan.</ref> As a result, critics argue, the peg-like nature of mountains is not so plainly evident as the exaggerated representation found in the diagram would make it seem.  
Advocates of the scientific miracle argue that isostasy affirms the peg-like nature of mountains and that Muhammad could not, in the 7th century, have come to realize this without divine aid. Critics respond to this by arguing that the caption associated with the diagram found in Cailleux's book explicitly points out that the visual representation has had its 'vertical scale greatly exaggerated'.<ref>Click [[:File:Anatomy of the Earth- Cailleux- pp 220-221.jpg|here]] for a more complete view of the page scan.</ref> As a result, critics argue, the peg-like nature of mountains is not so plainly evident as the exaggerated representation found in the diagram would make it seem. Moreover, the so-called pegs do not attach the crust to anything, but merely protrude into the molten mantle of the earth.


====Accurate representations of isostasy and exceptions====
====Accurate representations of isostasy and exceptions====
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====Critical and historical perspectives====
====Critical and historical perspectives====
Critics conclude that what may at most be said regarding the roots of those mountains that possess them is that they resemble pigs in some minimal metaphorical sense and that it is not the case that all mountains are literal pegs, as described in the Quran, which have been 'cast down' into the earth in order to stabilize this.
Critics conclude that what may at most be said regarding the roots of those mountains that possess them is that they resemble pegs in some minimal metaphorical sense and that it is not the case that all mountains are literal pegs, as described in the Quran, which have been 'cast down' into the earth in order to stabilize it.
[[File:Mountvstree.png|thumb|425x425px|The 'roots' of mountains and the roots of trees are visually similar]]
[[File:Mountvstree.png|thumb|425x425px|The 'roots' of mountains and the roots of trees are visually similar]]
If the advocates opt to transition to a metaphorical interpretation here, the critics continue, they have made an arbitrary decision, as the relevant scripture appears to take its own description quite literally (as is generally the case with verses in the Quran describing the step-wise creation of the Earth and heavens).
If the advocates opt to transition to a metaphorical interpretation here, the critics continue, they have made an arbitrary decision, as the relevant scripture appears to take its own description quite literally (as is generally the case with verses in the Quran describing the step-wise creation of the Earth and heavens).
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{{Quote|1=[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jonah%202:6&version=NIV Jonah 2:6 NIV]|2=To the roots of the mountains I sank down; the earth beneath barred me in forever. But you brought my life up from the pit, O LORD my God.}}
{{Quote|1=[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jonah%202:6&version=NIV Jonah 2:6 NIV]|2=To the roots of the mountains I sank down; the earth beneath barred me in forever. But you brought my life up from the pit, O LORD my God.}}


===The function of pegs vs. that of mountains===
=Mountains as stabilising the Earth=
A number of attempts are commonly made to interpret the following verses in light of modern science.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|15|19}}|And the earth We have spread out (like a carpet); set thereon mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due balance.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|And He has set up on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and rivers and roads; that ye may guide yourselves;}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|31}}|And We have set on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with them, and We have made therein broad highways (between mountains) for them to pass through: that they may receive Guidance. }}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|31|10}}|He created the heavens without any pillars that ye can see; He set on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and He scattered through it beasts of all kinds. We send down rain from the sky, and produce on the earth every kind of noble creature, in pairs.}}
 
As mentioned above, the phrases describing the mountains is the word rawaasiya (steadfast, anchors, used to mean mountains).<ref name="LexiconRawaasiya" />


====General arguments====
==General arguments==
Some advocates of the miracle argue that where mountains result from the collision of tectonic plates, they also cause the stability of the Earth. One advocates of the miracle writes as follows:{{Quote||Modern geologists describe the folds in the Earth as giving foundations to the mountains, and their dimensions go roughly one mile to roughly 10 miles. The stability of the Earth's crust results from the phenomenon of these folds.}}Critics, in response, point out the difference between cause and effect, suggesting that the advocates conflate the two, and describe how the formation of mountains is an incidental result of the collision of the tectonic plates, an event which in fact causes rather than prevents earthquakes. The mountains generated at these fault lines are a product of the tectonic collision and cannot be said to in any sense prevent it from taking place.  
Some advocates of the miracle argue that where mountains result from the collision of tectonic plates, they also cause the stability of the Earth. One advocates of the miracle writes as follows:{{Quote||Modern geologists describe the folds in the Earth as giving foundations to the mountains, and their dimensions go roughly one mile to roughly 10 miles. The stability of the Earth's crust results from the phenomenon of these folds.}}Critics, in response, point out the difference between cause and effect, suggesting that the advocates conflate the two, and describe how the formation of mountains is an incidental result of the collision of the tectonic plates, an event which in fact causes rather than prevents earthquakes. The mountains generated at these fault lines are a product of the tectonic collision and cannot be said to in any sense prevent it from taking place.  


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Moreover, the critics add, considering the above, these mountains are not acting in any capacity that can be described as peg-like (a better analogy might be the bumper of a car, which crumples upon collision to save the driver, for instance, from being crumpled - but this has nothing to do with pegs and does not serve the purpose of 'stabilization').  
Moreover, the critics add, considering the above, these mountains are not acting in any capacity that can be described as peg-like (a better analogy might be the bumper of a car, which crumples upon collision to save the driver, for instance, from being crumpled - but this has nothing to do with pegs and does not serve the purpose of 'stabilization').  


====Arguments presented by Professor El Naggar====
==Arguments presented by Professor El Naggar==


Professor El Naggar presents the above arguments in fewer words and with a less detailed explanation.  
Professor El Naggar presents the above arguments in fewer words and with a less detailed explanation.  
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Critics also point out that cratons are stable regions of the earth's crust that are no longer subject to mountain building processes. These craton roots or keels form through the depletion of basaltic elements into the asthenosphere, leading to less dense material that sinks deeper into the mantle due to the lower buoyancy (i.e. the isostasy of the crust, that is, rather than of the mountains).<ref>Sankaran, A.V. - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/nov102001/1158.pdf|2=2011-10-02}} CURRENT SCIENCE] - VOL. 81, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2001 pp. 1158-1160</ref>
Critics also point out that cratons are stable regions of the earth's crust that are no longer subject to mountain building processes. These craton roots or keels form through the depletion of basaltic elements into the asthenosphere, leading to less dense material that sinks deeper into the mantle due to the lower buoyancy (i.e. the isostasy of the crust, that is, rather than of the mountains).<ref>Sankaran, A.V. - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/nov102001/1158.pdf|2=2011-10-02}} CURRENT SCIENCE] - VOL. 81, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2001 pp. 1158-1160</ref>


===The relationship between mountains and earthquakes===
==The relationship between mountains and earthquakes==


Critics also point out that, as early as the 1920s, scientists noted that earthquakes are concentrated in very specific and narrow zones arounds the planet (known as Wadati-Benioff zones). In 1954, French seismologist J.P. Rothé published a map showing the concentration of earthquakes along the zones indicated by dots and cross-hatched areas.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/zones.html|2=2011-10-02}} Earthquake zones] - U.S. Geological Survey</ref><center>[[File:Map_by_J.P._Rothé.gif|alt=|center|thumb|425x425px|J.P. Rothé's 1954 map]]</center>
Critics also point out that, as early as the 1920s, scientists noted that earthquakes are concentrated in very specific and narrow zones arounds the planet (known as Wadati-Benioff zones). In 1954, French seismologist J.P. Rothé published a map showing the concentration of earthquakes along the zones indicated by dots and cross-hatched areas.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/zones.html|2=2011-10-02}} Earthquake zones] - U.S. Geological Survey</ref><center>[[File:Map_by_J.P._Rothé.gif|alt=|center|thumb|425x425px|J.P. Rothé's 1954 map]]</center>
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{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/events/1960_05_22_articles.php|2=2011-10-02}} Historic Earthquakes]<BR>U.S. Geological Survey, March 29, 2010|Chile<BR>1960 May 22 19:11:14 UTC <BR>Magnitude 9.5 <BR>The Largest Earthquake in the World <BR><BR>More than 2,000 killed, 3,000 injured, 2,000,000 homeless, and $550 million damage in southern Chile; tsunami caused 61 deaths, $75 million damage in Hawaii; 138 deaths and $50 million damage in Japan; 32 dead and missing in the Philippines; and $500,000 damage to the west coast of the United States.}}The Andes Mountains did not prevent or stabilize this earthquake. On the contrary, later research revealed that the collision of tectonic plates that caused the earthquake also caused the Andes mountains to be raised. Similar earthquakes in the past are responsible for the existence of Andes in the first place. This collision even serves as a textbook example of the general phenomena, as can be seen below.{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/tectonic.htm|2=2011-10-02}} Plate tectonics]<BR>Earth Science From Moorland School|This is a convergent plate boundary, the plates move towards each other. The amount of crust on the surface of the earth remains relatively constant. Therefore, when plates diverge (separate) and form new crust in one area, the plates must converge (come together) in another area and be destroyed. An example of this is the Nazca plate being subducted under the South American plate to form the Andes Mountain Chain.}}[[File:Platetecmap.gif|alt=|center]]
{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/events/1960_05_22_articles.php|2=2011-10-02}} Historic Earthquakes]<BR>U.S. Geological Survey, March 29, 2010|Chile<BR>1960 May 22 19:11:14 UTC <BR>Magnitude 9.5 <BR>The Largest Earthquake in the World <BR><BR>More than 2,000 killed, 3,000 injured, 2,000,000 homeless, and $550 million damage in southern Chile; tsunami caused 61 deaths, $75 million damage in Hawaii; 138 deaths and $50 million damage in Japan; 32 dead and missing in the Philippines; and $500,000 damage to the west coast of the United States.}}The Andes Mountains did not prevent or stabilize this earthquake. On the contrary, later research revealed that the collision of tectonic plates that caused the earthquake also caused the Andes mountains to be raised. Similar earthquakes in the past are responsible for the existence of Andes in the first place. This collision even serves as a textbook example of the general phenomena, as can be seen below.{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/tectonic.htm|2=2011-10-02}} Plate tectonics]<BR>Earth Science From Moorland School|This is a convergent plate boundary, the plates move towards each other. The amount of crust on the surface of the earth remains relatively constant. Therefore, when plates diverge (separate) and form new crust in one area, the plates must converge (come together) in another area and be destroyed. An example of this is the Nazca plate being subducted under the South American plate to form the Andes Mountain Chain.}}[[File:Platetecmap.gif|alt=|center]]
===Mountains and isostatic stabilization===
==Mountains and isostatic stabilization==


Advocates of the miracle point to George Airy's model of isostasy, which supports the idea that isostasy occurring below mountains causes mountains themselves to be more stable than if isostasy were not occurring below. This, they argue, is another point of evidence that mountains stabilize the Earth as described in the Quran. Critics respond to this argument by stating that George Airy's model says nothing special of mountains, per se, and simply demonstrates that isostasy - that is the extension of the earth's crust below the surface to a degree correlated to the height of the surface at any given point - generally causes the crust of the earth to be stable, whether or not a a given area is mountainous. Moreover, they point out, the fact that a mountain's isostasy causes the mountain to stabilize 'itself' - that is, just as the isostasy of any region causes that same region to be stable - does not mean that the mountain is in any way stabilizing the Earth in general or even the surrounding region in any meaningful way. They summarize this counterargument by suggesting that, on the basis of Airy's model, it can be said that if there were a region possessing a mountain and subject to isostasy, there is no reason to believe that region would be more stable than another, similar region that did not have a mountain but was also subject to isostasy to the same, natural extent.  
Advocates of the miracle point to George Airy's model of isostasy, which supports the idea that isostasy occurring below mountains causes mountains themselves to be more stable than if isostasy were not occurring below. This, they argue, is another point of evidence that mountains stabilize the Earth as described in the Quran. Critics respond to this argument by stating that George Airy's model says nothing special of mountains, per se, and simply demonstrates that isostasy - that is the extension of the earth's crust below the surface to a degree correlated to the height of the surface at any given point - generally causes the crust of the earth to be stable, whether or not a a given area is mountainous. Moreover, they point out, the fact that a mountain's isostasy causes the mountain to stabilize 'itself' - that is, just as the isostasy of any region causes that same region to be stable - does not mean that the mountain is in any way stabilizing the Earth in general or even the surrounding region in any meaningful way. They summarize this counterargument by suggesting that, on the basis of Airy's model, it can be said that if there were a region possessing a mountain and subject to isostasy, there is no reason to believe that region would be more stable than another, similar region that did not have a mountain but was also subject to isostasy to the same, natural extent.  
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Another way the critics put it is that the phenomenon of isostasy is itself responsible for the stability of the crust - whether or not the crust is host to mountains in any given region. Isostasy stabilizes mountains, even terrain, and even indented regions on the Earth's surface. The Mountains do not cause this isostasy any more than isostasy causes mountains, as isostasy is co-occurrent with any variety of terrain - mountainous or otherwise. The co-occurrent isostasy is, however, responsible for the stability of the mountains as well as the crust, and not the other way around - that is, a region excepted from the norms of isostasy (as many are) will not be as stable, whether this region is mountainous or not. Isostasy is best understood as a phenomenon separate from the mountains altogether, as it is no more bound in the simple fact of its existence to the presence of mountains than it is to region of simple, flat crust (even if the specific form it takes in either of these cases is).
Another way the critics put it is that the phenomenon of isostasy is itself responsible for the stability of the crust - whether or not the crust is host to mountains in any given region. Isostasy stabilizes mountains, even terrain, and even indented regions on the Earth's surface. The Mountains do not cause this isostasy any more than isostasy causes mountains, as isostasy is co-occurrent with any variety of terrain - mountainous or otherwise. The co-occurrent isostasy is, however, responsible for the stability of the mountains as well as the crust, and not the other way around - that is, a region excepted from the norms of isostasy (as many are) will not be as stable, whether this region is mountainous or not. Isostasy is best understood as a phenomenon separate from the mountains altogether, as it is no more bound in the simple fact of its existence to the presence of mountains than it is to region of simple, flat crust (even if the specific form it takes in either of these cases is).


===Earthquakes and the meaning of ''tameeda'' and ''zalzala''===
==Earthquakes and the meaning of ''tameeda'' and ''zalzala''==


In response to the regular co-occurrence of earthquakes and mountains due to their related presence at tectonic fault-lines, advocates of the miracle sometimes argue that the word (''tameeda'') used in the Quran to describe the phenomenon which mountains, as pegs, prevent describes something altogether different from earthquakes. What this phenomenon is, they suggest, is not known, as it has not been observed, which may be due to the fact that it does not take place on a human timescale but rather, perhaps, a geological timescale (that is, over hundreds of thousands or millions of years). The argument is based upon the alternative meanings that the word ''tameeda'' can have, including 'stagger', 'roll', 'sway', and 'tilt', along with the idea that any geological phenomenon described by these alternative meanings of the word ''tameeda'' would be distinct from the short, sharp shock of an earthquake. This, the advocates hold, is important because the Quran deliberately opts not to use the word ''zalzala'' in these contexts, which is used elsewhere in the Quran to describe earthquakes.  
In response to the regular co-occurrence of earthquakes and mountains due to their related presence at tectonic fault-lines, advocates of the miracle sometimes argue that the word (''tameeda'') used in the Quran to describe the phenomenon which mountains, as pegs, prevent describes something altogether different from earthquakes. What this phenomenon is, they suggest, is not known, as it has not been observed, which may be due to the fact that it does not take place on a human timescale but rather, perhaps, a geological timescale (that is, over hundreds of thousands or millions of years). The argument is based upon the alternative meanings that the word ''tameeda'' can have, including 'stagger', 'roll', 'sway', and 'tilt', along with the idea that any geological phenomenon described by these alternative meanings of the word ''tameeda'' would be distinct from the short, sharp shock of an earthquake. This, the advocates hold, is important because the Quran deliberately opts not to use the word ''zalzala'' in these contexts, which is used elsewhere in the Quran to describe earthquakes.  
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The above and similar studies are referenced by advocates as specific evidence of mountains stabilizing the Earth's crust and undermining seismic activity. Critics respond that although the phenomenon described has a limited stabilizing effect on certain regions favorably positioned vis-à-vis the mountain range, the mountains do not prevent the earthquake outright and, more importantly, that the limited stabilizing effect observed is only relevant if the inhabited area happens to be favorably positioned vis-à-vis the mountain range - this means that if, for instance, the city were located between the mountain and the fault line where the quake originated, even if the city was located near the foot of the mountain, then the destruction experienced by the city would not be reduced in any significant way. Critics have also stated that the dampening effect described above although real in some cases, is, yet again, not a phenomenon that can be described in any plausible way as being peg-like.
The above and similar studies are referenced by advocates as specific evidence of mountains stabilizing the Earth's crust and undermining seismic activity. Critics respond that although the phenomenon described has a limited stabilizing effect on certain regions favorably positioned vis-à-vis the mountain range, the mountains do not prevent the earthquake outright and, more importantly, that the limited stabilizing effect observed is only relevant if the inhabited area happens to be favorably positioned vis-à-vis the mountain range - this means that if, for instance, the city were located between the mountain and the fault line where the quake originated, even if the city was located near the foot of the mountain, then the destruction experienced by the city would not be reduced in any significant way. Critics have also stated that the dampening effect described above although real in some cases, is, yet again, not a phenomenon that can be described in any plausible way as being peg-like.


==See Also==
=See Also=


*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]
*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]
*[[Scientific Errors in the Quran]]
*[[Scientific Errors in the Quran]]


==References==
=References=
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist|30em}}


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