List of Genocides, Cultural Genocides and Ethnic Cleansings under Islam: Difference between revisions

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Revision as of 21:49, 5 May 2017

This article is a dynamic list of genocides, cultural genocides and acts of ethnic cleansing under Muslim regimes from the origin of Islam to present day.

Mutual population exchanges, massacres and war crimes involving non-Muslims and Muslims (such as Greece–Turkey, India–Pakistan or Israel–Palestine) are excluded from this list.

No. Name Region Country Who was Responsible Period Notes
1 Arab polytheists Arabian peninsula Saudi Arabia Flag of Saudi Arabia.png 600s AD
2 Jews Arabian peninsula 600s AD
3 Christians Arabian peninsula 600s AD
Traditional Berber religion North Africa Arab Muslims 647 onwards
Berber Christians Algeria Umayyad Caliphate[1] 647 onwards
Zoroastrians Persia Iran Flag of Iran.png Arab and Persian Muslims 642-early 10th century [2][3][4]
Hindus Afghanistan Flag of Afghanistan.png
Buddhists Afghanistan Flag of Afghanistan.png
Dards Kashmir and northern Pakistan India Flag of India.png, Pakistan Flag of Pakistan.png Arab invaders, Swat princely state c. 700 AD and 1858-1969 Most Dards were converted to Islam[5][6]
Hindus and Buddhists Gandhara Afghanistan Flag of Afghanistan.png Mahmud of Ghazni 998-1030 Mass conversions and coercions.[7]
Hindus India Flag of India.png Various Muslim invaders and rulers 1000-1525 The Hindu population of India fell by an estimated 60 to 80 million in this period.[8][9][10] Detailed analyses of this event and the casualties are rare.
Jews Maghreb and Andalusia Morocco Flag of Morocco.png, Spain Flag of Spain.png (southern), Portugal Flag of Portugal.png, Tunisia Flag of Tunisia.png Almohad Caliphate 1126-1269 Jews were expelled, killed or forced to convert to Islam.[11][12][13]
Buddhists Bihar India Flag of India.png Bakhtiyar Khilji c.1197-1203 Famous Buddhist monasteries and universities were also destroyed[14][15][16]
Christians Anatolia Turkey Flag of Turkey.png Muslim Turks
Buddhists Maldives Flag of Maldives.png c. 1200s onwards
Kanuri people Kanem empire Chad Flag of Chad.png, Nigeria Flag of Nigeria.png, Cameroon Flag of Cameroon.png Dunama Dabbalemi 1203 to 1243 All Kanuris converted to Islam as a result of a jihad.[17][18]
Mongol converts to Islam[19] Delhi India Flag of India.png Alauddin Khilji 1298 15,000-30,000 were killed
Hindus Kashmir India Flag of India.png, Pakistan Flag of Pakistan.png Sikandar Butshikan 1389-1413 [20][21]
Coptic Christians Egypt Flag of Egypt.png Mamluk Sultanate 1300s-1517 Rampant discrimination and persecution under the Pact of Umar forced a majority of Copts to convert to Islam.[22]
Maronites and Greek Orthodox Christians Coast of the Levant Lebanon Flag of Lebanon.png, Syria Flag of Syria.png Mamluk Sultanate 1300s These communities were expelled and their settlements were destroyed.[23]
Nestorian Christians Iraq Flag of Iraq.png, Iran Flag of Iran.png, Uzbekistan Flag of Uzbekistan.png Timur 1380s-1405 Timur's raids and slaughters nearly exterminated the followers of the Nestorian Church in the Near East.[24]
Zoroastrians Persia Iran Flag of Iran.png Persian Muslims under the Safavid dynasty 1502-1747
Jews Safed present-day Israel Flag of Israel.png Retreating Mamluk army of Egypt and Arab civilians 1517 Jews were evicted from their homes, robbed and plundered, and they fled naked to the villages.[25][26][27][28][29]
Jews Yemen Flag of Yemen.png Imam of Yemen (Rassid dynasty) 1679–1680 The Jews of nearly all cities and towns in Yemen were exiled to a remote desert and left to die. Their property was also confiscated.[30][31][32][33]
Zoroastrians Persia Iran Flag of Iran.png Persian Muslims under the Qajar dynasty 1796-1925
Mandaeans Iran Flag of Iran.png Qajar dynasty of Persia 18th and 19th centuries.[34]
Assyrian Christians Bohtan and Hakkari Iraq Flag of Iraq.png, Turkey Flag of Turkey.png Badr Khan and Nurallah of Hakkari 1843-47 More than 1000 Christians were killed.[35] The Muslim armies destroyed several villages and took prisoners as war booty.[36]
Jews Throughout the Middle East and North Africa 1840-1908 Following the Damascus affair, riots and massacres of Jews occurred in Aleppo (1850, 1875), Damascus (1840, 1848, 1890), Beirut (1862, 1874), Dayr al-Qamar (1847), Jerusalem (1847), Cairo (1844, 1890, 1901–02), Mansura (1877), Alexandria (1870, 1882, 1901–07), Port Said (1903, 1908), Damanhur (1871, 1873, 1877, 1891), Istanbul (1870, 1874), Buyukdere (1864), Kuzguncuk (1866), Eyub (1868), Edirne (1872), Izmir (1872, 1874).[37]
Jews Mashhad, Barfurush Iran Flag of Iran.png 1839, 1867 Mashhad witnessed forced conversions of Jews to Islam to avert a massarce. In Barfurush, Jews were massacred.[37][38]
Polytheists Kafiristan Afghanistan Flag of Afghanistan.png 1890s
Armenians and Assyrians Eastern Turkey Turkey Flag of Turkey.png Ottoman Empire
Kurdish and Turkoman irregulars		 1894–1896 100,000–300,000 were killed.[39]
Armenians Adana Vilayet Turkey Flag of Turkey.png Young Turk government under the Ottoman Empire 1909 15,000–30,000 were killed.[40][41]


Maronite Christians Mount Lebanon Lebanon Flag of Lebanon.png Ottoman Empire 1915-1918 The Ottomans deliberately cut off food supplies to the Maronites in order to feed their military.[42]
Assyrian Christians Turkey Flag of Turkey.png, Iran Flag of Iran.png[43] 1914-1918 200,000 to 275,000 were killed.[44][45] About half of the Assyrian population in the Ottoman Empire perished.[46]
Armenians Turkey Flag of Turkey.png Ottoman Empire, Young Turks 1915-1918 or 1923 An estimated 600,000–1,800,000 Armenians were systematically massacred.[47][48] The Turkish government currently denies the genocide. Considered the first modern genocide by scholars.
Alevi Kurds Dersim Turkey Flag of Turkey.png 1937-38 13,000-40,000 killed.[49]
Tibetans Qinghai Province China Flag of China.png Ma Bufang and his Muslim soldiers 1932-41 The motive was ethnic cleansing of Tibetans and destruction of their culture, resulting in thousands of casualties.[50][51][52][53][54]
Hindus Pakistan Flag of Pakistan.png 1947-present
Hindus Bangladesh Flag of Bangladesh.png 1947-present
Egyptian Jews Egypt Flag of Egypt.png 1948-1957
Iraqi and Kurdish Jews Iraq Flag of Iraq.png 1950s-1969 [55]
East Timor Flag of East Timor.png Indonesia Flag of Indonesia.png 1975-1999 Described as a genocide


Chakma, Marma, Tripuri and other indigenous people Chittagong Hill Tracts Bangladesh Flag of Bangladesh.png Bangladeshi army and Muslim settlers 1977-1997 [56][57]
Kashmiri Pandits and other Hindus Kashmir valley India Flag of India.png Kashmiri Muslim mobs and Pakistani terrorists 1989-2001
Kurds Iraqi Kurdistan Iraq Flag of Iraq.png Saddam Hussein 1986-89 50,000-182,000 civilians killed.[58][59]
Isaaq clan (Muslim) of Somalis Somalia Flag of Somalia.png Siad Barre 1988-1990 50,000-100,000 killed (possibly up to 200,000)[60][61][62][63]
Bantu people (Christians, Muslims and Traditional African religion) Jubba Valley Somalia Flag of Somalia.png Somali militias 1991 onwards [64]


Non-Arab and Black tribes (Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa) Darfur Sudan Flag of Sudan.png Omar al-Bashir and janjaweed militias 2003-present
Christians Somalia Flag of Somalia.png Al Shabab 2005 onwards [65]


Mandaeans Iraq Flag of Iraq.png 2003 onwards [66]


Assyrian Christians Iraq Flag of Iraq.png 1933-2014 [67][68][69]
Yazidis Iraqi Kurdistan Iraq Flag of Iraq.png ISIS 2014-
Arab Christians, Levantines, Armenians, Arameans, Assyrians (Syriacs or Chaldeans) and Copts Iraq Flag of Iraq.png, Syria Flag of Syria.png, Libya Flag of Libya.png ISIS 2014- At least 1000 casualties.[70] Described as a genocide by EU.[71][72][73][74]
Shias (including ethnic Turkmen and Shabak) Iraq Flag of Iraq.png, Syria Flag of Syria.png ISIS 2014-Present [75][76]


Christians and Muslims Nigeria Flag of Nigeria.png Boko Haram 2014-present [77][78]
Coptic Christians North Sinai Egypt Flag of Egypt.png ISIS Feb 2017-present [79][80][81]



Key:

  • No color: Non-Muslims targeted
  • Light green: Predominantly Muslims targeted
  • Orange: Both Muslims and Non-Muslims targeted

References

  1. ↑ The Disappearance of Christianity from North Africa in the Wake of the Rise of Islam C. J. Speel, II Church History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Dec., 1960), pp. 379-397
  2. ↑ Stepaniants 2002, p. 163
  3. ↑ Boyce 2001, p. 148
  4. ↑ Dr. Daryush Jahanian, "The History of Zoroastrians After Arab Invasion", European Centre for Zoroastrian Studies (archived from the original), https://web.archive.org/web/20090414093548/http://www.gatha.org/english/articles/000258.html. 
  5. ↑ "Swat: an Afghan society in Pakistan : urbanisation and change in tribal environment", City Press, https://books.google.com/books?id=p_9tAAAAMAAJ&q=dard+people+swati&dq=dard+people+swati&lr=&cd=1. 
  6. ↑ "Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of ancient Hinduism with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called imr'o or imra by the Nuristani tribes. Around 700 CE, Arab invaders swept through the region now known as Afghanistan, destroying or forcibly converting the population to their new Islamic religion. Refugees from the invaders fled into the higher valleys to escape the onslaught. In their mountain strongholds, the Nuristani escaped conversion conversion to Islam and retained their ancient religion and culture. The surrounding Muslim peoples used the name Kafir, meaning "unbeliever" or "infidel," to describe the independent Nuristani tribes and called their highland homeland Kafiristan.", Minahan, James B., "Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia" (in English), ABC-CLIO, p. 205, ISBN 9781610690188 
  7. ↑ Afghanistan: a new history By Martin Ewans Edition: 2, illustrated Published by Routledge, 2002, Page 15, ISBN 0-415-29826-1, ISBN 978-0-415-29826-1
  8. ↑ Lal, K. S. Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India(1000-1800) (1973) pp. 211–217.
  9. ↑ A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707, Cambridge University Press, p 528, Stephen Neill.
  10. ↑ http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/negaind/ch2.htm
  11. ↑ http://web.archive.org/web/20170309123848/http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/39129/1/Almohad.MEAH.pdf
  12. ↑ Frank and Leaman, The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy. 2003, pp. 137–138
  13. ↑ M.J. Viguera. "Almohads." Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. Executive Editor: Norman A. Stillman. Brill Online, 2014
  14. ↑ Ishwari Prasad, Medieval India (Allahabad, Fourth Publication, 1940), p.138.
  15. ↑ The Indian Antiquary, Vol. IV, pp.366-67.
  16. ↑ Habibullah, Abul Barkat Muhammad. The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India. (Allahabad, 1961). p.147.
  17. ↑ Barkindo, Bawuro, "The early states of the Central Sudan: Kanem, Borno and some of their neighbours to c. 1500 A.D.", in: J. Ajayi und M. Crowder (ed.), History of West Africa, vol. I, 3. ed. Harlow 1985, 225-254.
  18. ↑ "Three Continents, One History: Birmingham, the Transatlantic Slave Trade and the Caribbean", p. 18, by Clive Harris.
  19. ↑ Smith, Vincent A. The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, Chapter 2, pp 231-235, Oxford University Press.
  20. ↑ Kaw, K.; Kashmir Education, Culture, and Science Society (2004). Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. ISBN 9788176485371. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
  21. ↑ Haidar Malik Chãdurãh. Tãrîkh-i-Kashmîr. edited and translated into English by Razia Bano, Delhi, 1991. p. 55.
  22. ↑ Stilt, Kristen (2011). Islamic Law in Action: Authority, Discretion, and Everyday Experiences in Mamluk Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199602438. p.120.
  23. ↑ Teule, Herman G. B. (2013). "Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516". In Thomas, David; Mallett, Alex. Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350-1500). p.11. Brill. ISBN 9789004252783.
  24. ↑ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nestorians
  25. ↑ Shmuelevitz, Aryeh (1999). history and society: Jewish sources. Isis Press. p. 15: "[Rabbi Elijah] Capsali, relying on Jewish informants, was perhaps better informed about what was happening to Jewish communities in remote parts of the Empire. He wrote about Jews suffering in time of war: the pogrom in Safed during Selim I's campaign against the Mamluks for the conquest of Syria, Palestine and Egypt; and preparations for a pogrom against the Jewish community in Cairo on the eve of Selim’s conquest of the city.'
  26. ↑ David, Abraham (2010). To Come to the Land: Immigration and Settlement in 16th-Century Eretz-Israel. Translated by Dena Ordan. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5643-9. p.97.
  27. ↑ David, Abraham (1999). In Zion and Jerusalem: the itinerary of Rabbi Moses Basola (1521-1523). Translated by Dena Ordan. Bar-Ilan University. ISBN 978-9-6522-2926-7. p.62.
  28. ↑ Finkelstein, Louis (1970). "Eretz Yisrael Under Ottoman Rule, 1517-1917". The Jews: Their History. Schocken Books. p.407.
  29. ↑ Fine, Lawrence (2003). Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and His Kabbalistic Fellowship. Stanford University Press. p.44.
  30. ↑ Yosef Tobi, The Jews of Yemen (Studies in Their History and Culture), Brill: Leiden 1999, pp. 77-79
  31. ↑ Yosef Qafiḥ (ed.), “Qorot Yisra’el be-Teman by Rabbi Ḥayim Ḥibshush,” Sefunot, Volume 2, Ben-Zvi Institute: Jerusalem 1958, pp. 246-286 (Hebrew). Yosef Qafiḥ, Ketavim (Collected Papers), Vol. 2, Jerusalem 1989, p. 714 (Hebrew)
  32. ↑ Yemenite Jewry: Origins, Culture and Literature, by Rueben Aharoni, Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1986, pp. 121–135
  33. ↑ P.S. van Koningsveld, J. Sadan & Q. Al-Samarrai, Yemenite Authorities and Jewish Messianism, Leiden University 1990, pp. 156-158. ISBN 9071220079
  34. ↑ Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People, New York: Oxford University Press 2002. p.6.
  35. ↑ Gaunt, D; Beṯ-Şawoce, J (2006), Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I, Gorgias Press LLC, ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0. p. 32.
  36. ↑ Aboona, Hirmis (2008), Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire, Cambria Press, ISBN 978-1-60497-583-3. pp.218-219
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10–11.
  38. ↑ Patai, Raphael (1997). Jadid al-Islam: The Jewish "New Muslims" of Meshhed. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-2652-8.
  39. ↑ Akçam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 42. ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.
  40. ↑ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act. 2006, page 69–70: "fifteen to twenty thousand Armenians were killed"
  41. ↑ Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views By Samuel. Totten, William S. Parsons, Israel W. Charny
  42. ↑ Harris, William (2012). Lebanon: A History, 600–2011. Oxford University Press. pp. 173–179. ISBN 9780195181111.
  43. ↑ Alexander Laban Hinton,Thomas La Pointe,Douglas Irvin-Erickson. Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory. pp 117. Rutgers University Press, ISBN 0813561647.
  44. ↑ Travis, Hannibal. 'Native Christians Massacred: The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I. Genocide Studies and Prevention, Vol. 1, No. 3, December 2006, pp. 327–371.
  45. ↑ (French) Yacoub, Joseph. La question assyro-chaldéenne, les Puissances européennes et la SDN (1908–1938), 4 vol., thèse Lyon, 1985, p. 156.
  46. ↑ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. "The Assyrian Genocide." Routledge. ISBN 9781136937965.
  47. ↑ Göçek, Fatma Müge (2015). Denial of violence : Ottoman past, Turkish present and collective violence against the Armenians, 1789-2009. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 019933420X.
  48. ↑ Auron, Yair (2000). The banality of indifference: Zionism & the Armenian genocide. Transaction Publishers. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7658-0881-3.
  49. ↑ David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds: Third Edition p. 209, I.B.Tauris, 2004. ISBN 1850434166.
  50. ↑ Rab-brtan-rdo-rje (Ñag-roṅ-pa.) (translated by Jamyang Norbu) (1979). Horseman in the snow: the story of Aten, an old Khampa warrior. Information Office, Central Tibetan Secretariat. p. 134.
  51. ↑ Jamyang Norbu (1986). Warriors of Tibet: the story of Aten, and the Khampas' fight for the freedom of their country. Wisdom Publications. p. gbooks says 46, (the actual paper says 146). ISBN 0-86171-050-9.
  52. ↑ Hsaio-ting Lin (1 January 2011). Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49. UBC Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-7748-5988-2.
  53. ↑ David S. G. Goodman (2004). China's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-521-61349-3.
  54. ↑ Bulag, Uradyn Erden (2002). Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 54. ISBN 0-7425-1144-8.
  55. ↑ Republic of fear: the politics of modern Iraq By Kanan Makiya, chapter 2 "A World of Fear", University of California 1998
  56. ↑ Nagendra K. Singh (2003). Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 222–223. ISBN 81-261-1390-1.
  57. ↑ Shelley, Mizanur Rahman (1992). The Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh: The untold story. Centre for Development Research, Bangladesh. p. 129.
  58. ↑ "Iraqi Anfal", Human Rights Watch, 1993, http://hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/. 
  59. ↑ The Crimes of Saddam Hussein – 1988 The Anfal Campaign PBS Frontline.
  60. ↑ Peifer, Douglas C. (in en). Stopping Mass Killings in Africa: Genocide, Airpower, and Intervention. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 9781437912814, 2009-05-01. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tOgOwSXB164C&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=50,000&source=bl&ots=gDxdHZNEgV&sig=tQB8KBkmIN2qBGzghefetUE7ITo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwig3YSDnsjRAhVI1BoKHbKaBUEQ6AEIIjAB#v=onepage&q=50,000%20isaaq%20deaths&f=false. 
  61. ↑ Straus, Scott (in en). Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801455674, 2015-03-24. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mKWiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT149&dq=&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi17-PMzMzRAhXLVhoKHZERA3w4ChDoAQg-MAc#v=onepage&q=%22large%20systematic%20scale%22&f=false. 
  62. ↑ Jones, Adam (in en). Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity. Zed Books. ISBN 9781842771914, 2017-01-22. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZybbAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=By+then,+any+surviving+urban+Isaaks+-. 
  63. ↑ "Investigating genocide in Somaliland", http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/investigating-genocide-somaliland-20142310820367509.html. 
  64. ↑ Catherine L. Besteman, "Genocide in Somalia’s Jubba Valley and Somali Bantu Refugees in the U.S.", Social Science Research Council, April 9 2007 (archived), http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Besteman/. 
  65. ↑ "Somalia's embattled Christians: Almost expunged", The Economist (archived), http://www.economist.com/node/14707279. 
  66. ↑ http://www.aina.org/reports/mhrar200803.pdf
  67. ↑ http://www.aina.org/articles/contestednations.pdf
  68. ↑ http://www.aina.org/reports/ig.pdf
  69. ↑ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/oct/06/religion.iraq
  70. ↑ "At least a thousand Christians have been killed. Hundreds of thousands have fled.", "As Christians Flee, Governments Pressured To Declare ISIS Guilty Of Genocide", NPR, 24 December 2015, http://www.npr.org/2015/12/24/460906980/as-christians-flee-governments-pressured-to-declare-isis-guilty-of-genocide 
  71. ↑ 2014. Seven Egyptian Christians found shot execution-style on Libyan beach Reuters.
  72. ↑ Moore, Jack. "European Parliament Recognizes ISIS Killing of Religious Minorities as Genocide", February 4, 2016. 
  73. ↑ Kaplan, Michael. "ISIS Genocide Against Christians, Yazidis? European Parliament Recognizes Islamic State Targeting Religious Minorities", February 4, 2016. “The European Parliament characterized the persecution as "genocide" Thursday.” 
  74. ↑ JOINT MOTION FOR A RESOLUTION, European Parliament.
  75. ↑ Harding, Luke; Irbil, Fazel Hawramy, "Isis accused of ethnic cleansing as story of Shia prison massacre emerges", https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/25/isis-ethnic-cleansing-shia-prisoners-iraq-mosul. 
  76. ↑ http://europe.newsweek.com/isis-genocide-kerry-yazidis-christians-shia-437944?rm=eu
  77. ↑ http://genocidewatch.net/2016/02/09/justice-for-jos-project-and-us-nigeria-law-group-on-boko-haram-attacks/
  78. ↑ https://www.naij.com/1097991-catholic-bishop-reveals-boko-haram-killed-500-priests-borno-state.html Archive at [1]
  79. ↑ http://web.archive.org/web/20170308101839/http://www.aina.org/news/20170308034228.htm
  80. ↑ http://web.archive.org/web/20170309063403/http://www.financialexpress.com/world-news/isis-butchering-egyptian-christians-in-their-own-homes/580189/
  81. ↑ http://web.archive.org/web/20170308190158/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/egypt-coptic-christians-flee-sinai-ismailiya-170226154942356.html

Bibliography

  • Boyce, Mary (2001), Zoroastrians, their religious beliefs and practices (2 ed.), New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 148-252, ISBN 9780415239028
  • Stepaniants, Marietta (2002), "The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam", Philosophy East and West, University of Hawai'i Press, 52 (2): pp. 159–172, doi:10.1353/pew.2002.0030, ISSN 0031-8221, JSTOR 1399963.

See also

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