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The apologetic interpretations of these verses began in earnest when books were published by non-Muslim medical experts Dr. [[Bucailleism|Maurice Bucaille]]<ref>Bucaille, M., ''La Bible, le Coran et la Science : Les Écritures Saintes examinées à la lumière des connaissances modernes'', Paris:Seghers, 1976, (ISBN 978-2221501535)</ref> and later by Dr. [[Dr. Keith Moore and the Islamic Additions|Keith Moore]]<ref>Keith L. Moore and Abdul-Majeed A. Zindani, ''The Developing Human With Islamic Additions'', 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders with Jeddah:Dar al-Qiblah for Islamic Literature, 1983</ref><ref>Later, Dr. Moore wrote a similarly popularised article for an Islamic journal: <br>Dr. Moore, K., ''A Scientist's Interpretation of References to Embryology in the Qur'an'', Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 1986, vol.18(Jan-June):15-17</ref> (in a special edition of his book that was subtitled, "[[Dr. Keith Moore and the Islamic Additions|With Islamic Additions]]", alongside his co-author Abdul Majeed al-Zindani, a [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] cleric). However, some critics believe Moore was only paying lip service to his hosts and investors, as he worked with the Embryology Committee of King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah.<ref>Keith L. Moore and Abdul-Majeed A. Zindani, ''The Developing Human With Islamic Additions'', 3rd ed., Philadelphia: Saunders with Jeddah:Dar al-Qiblah for Islamic Literature, 1983, page viii insert c.</ref> Moore's praise of Islamic claims have been repeated in talks by Dr. [[Zakir Naik]], [[Harun Yahya]], and other apologists. Critics, like Dr. P.Z. Myers, believe the Quranic verses that mention embryology are incomparable and unacceptable to scientific standards.<ref>Dr. P.Z. Myers ''[https://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2011/11/23/islamic-embryology-overblown-b Islamic embryology: overblown balderdash]'', Pharyngula blog - Scienceblogs.com, 2011, accessed 4 Jan 2019</ref> | The apologetic interpretations of these verses began in earnest when books were published by non-Muslim medical experts Dr. [[Bucailleism|Maurice Bucaille]]<ref>Bucaille, M., ''La Bible, le Coran et la Science : Les Écritures Saintes examinées à la lumière des connaissances modernes'', Paris:Seghers, 1976, (ISBN 978-2221501535)</ref> and later by Dr. [[Dr. Keith Moore and the Islamic Additions|Keith Moore]]<ref>Keith L. Moore and Abdul-Majeed A. Zindani, ''The Developing Human With Islamic Additions'', 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders with Jeddah:Dar al-Qiblah for Islamic Literature, 1983</ref><ref>Later, Dr. Moore wrote a similarly popularised article for an Islamic journal: <br>Dr. Moore, K., ''A Scientist's Interpretation of References to Embryology in the Qur'an'', Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 1986, vol.18(Jan-June):15-17</ref> (in a special edition of his book that was subtitled, "[[Dr. Keith Moore and the Islamic Additions|With Islamic Additions]]", alongside his co-author Abdul Majeed al-Zindani, a [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] cleric). However, some critics believe Moore was only paying lip service to his hosts and investors, as he worked with the Embryology Committee of King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah.<ref>Keith L. Moore and Abdul-Majeed A. Zindani, ''The Developing Human With Islamic Additions'', 3rd ed., Philadelphia: Saunders with Jeddah:Dar al-Qiblah for Islamic Literature, 1983, page viii insert c.</ref> Moore's praise of Islamic claims have been repeated in talks by Dr. [[Zakir Naik]], [[Harun Yahya]], and other apologists. Critics, like Dr. P.Z. Myers, believe the Quranic verses that mention embryology are incomparable and unacceptable to scientific standards.<ref>Dr. P.Z. Myers ''[https://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2011/11/23/islamic-embryology-overblown-b Islamic embryology: overblown balderdash]'', Pharyngula blog - Scienceblogs.com, 2011, accessed 4 Jan 2019</ref> | ||
Many have written about the remarkable similarities between Quranic embryology and that taught by [[w:Galen|Galen of Pergamon]]. Galen was a highly influential Greek physician (b. 130 CE), whose works were studied in Syria and Egypt during Muhammad's time<ref>Marshall Clagett, “Greek Science in Antiquity”, pp.180-181, New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1955; Dover, 2001</ref>. Some of the most obvious links with Galen (and also with the Talmud) are in statements about the nutfah (نُطْفَةً) stage of embryology in the Quran, and even more so in the hadith. See the article [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith]] for the compelling evidence. Striking similarities exist between the other Quranic embryo stages and Galen too. However, while interesting and very probable, these influences cannot be proven for the Quran, and it is in any case unnecessary when examining the accuracy of the Quranic descriptions. | Many have written about the remarkable similarities between Quranic embryology and that taught by [[w:Galen|Galen of Pergamon]]. Galen was a highly influential Greek physician (b. 130 CE), whose works were studied in Syria and Egypt during Muhammad's time<ref>Marshall Clagett, “Greek Science in Antiquity”, pp.180-181, New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1955; Dover, 2001</ref>. Some of the most obvious links with Galen (and also with the Talmud) are in statements about the nutfah (نُطْفَةً) stage of embryology in the Quran, and even more so in the hadith. See the article [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith]] for the compelling evidence. [[History of Embryology|Striking similarities]] exist between the other Quranic embryo stages and Galen too. However, while interesting and very probable, these influences cannot be proven for the Quran, and it is in any case unnecessary when examining the accuracy of the Quranic descriptions. This article will concentrate solely on apologetic claims made by Islamic websites and public figures and on criticisms concerning the validity of these claims. | ||
==Terms used in Quran== | ==Terms used in Quran== | ||
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#Nutfah (نُطْفَةً) - drop of semen<ref name="LLnutfah">نُطْفَةً nutfah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000288.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3034</ref> | #Nutfah (نُطْفَةً) - drop of semen<ref name="LLnutfah">نُطْفَةً nutfah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000288.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3034</ref> | ||
#Alaqah (عَلَقَةً) - leech and certain creatures that cling and suck blood, or blood, thick blood or clotted blood<ref name="LLalaqah">عَلَقَةً alaqah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000419.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2134</ref> | #Alaqah (عَلَقَةً) - leech and certain creatures that cling and suck blood, or blood, thick blood or clotted blood<ref name="LLalaqah">عَلَقَةً alaqah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000419.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2134</ref> | ||
#Mudghah (مُضْغَةً) - bite-sized morsel of flesh | #Mudghah (مُضْغَةً) - bite-sized morsel of flesh<ref name="LLmudghah">مُضْغَةً mudghah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000275.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3021</ref> | ||
#'Itham (عِظَٰمًا) - bones, especially of the limbs<ref name="LLitham">عِظَٰمًا 'itham - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000372.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2087</ref> | #'Itham (عِظَٰمًا) - bones, especially of the limbs<ref name="LLitham">عِظَٰمًا 'itham - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000372.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2087</ref> | ||
#Kasawa(كَسَوَ) - clothed<ref name="LLkasawa">كَسَوَ kasawa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000254.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3000</ref> | #Kasawa(كَسَوَ) - clothed<ref name="LLkasawa">كَسَوَ kasawa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000254.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3000</ref> | ||
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====Congealed Blood==== | ====Congealed Blood==== | ||
One of the meanings of 'alaqah is congealed blood, which was also the understanding given in numerous tafsirs, as detailed above. The Arab poet al-Nabigha alja'di النابغة الجعدي (died c.670 AD) was a contemporary of Muhammad and uses the word blood (al dam الدم) in exactly the same context in a poem about Allah.<ref> | |||
{{Quote-text|{{cite web|url= http://poetsgate.com/poem_14021.html|title= الحمد لله لا شريك له|publisher= PoetsGate (Arabic)|author= |date= February 15, 2007|archiveurl= http://archive.is/6XW6e|deadurl=no}}|الخـالق البـارئ المصـور في الأرحام ماء حتى يصير دما | |||
<br>Translation: The creator, the maker, the fashioner, in the wombs water until it becomes blood}} | |||
Water (maa') is used here as a euphemism for semen, just as we sometimes find in the Quran and hadiths (see above).</ref> | |||
It would be most unwise for the author of the Quran to use a word that has a specific, widely understood biological meaning to describe a biological process (embryology) if that meaning was not the intention. For the same reason it would be foolish even to use clotted blood merely as a visual metaphor. A perfect author would avoid arousing any such suspicion of inaccurate biology with his choice of words. | |||
===The Mudghah Stage=== | ===The Mudghah Stage=== | ||
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====Problems With The Quranic Description==== | ====Problems With The Quranic Description==== | ||
Firstly, it is clear that bone formation (ossification) begins long after muscle has begun to develop around its precursors. Therefore, there is no scientific basis for the | Firstly, it is clear that bone formation (ossification) begins long after muscle has begun to develop around its precursors. Therefore, there is no scientific basis for the Quranic claim of a stage in which bone is later covered with flesh after its own formation. The prefix fa before kasawna means "and then", indicating an uninterrupted sequence.<ref>فَ fa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2322</ref> | ||
Next, if proponents of | Next, if proponents of Quranic embryology suppose that the Quran was only referring to precursor cartilage models of the bones and not bone itself, they have to explain why the author of the Quran mentioned not cartilage (ghudhroof)<ref name="LLghudtroof">غضروف ghudhroof, alternatively spelt غرضوف ghurdoof - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000032.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2248</ref>) but only bone ('itham)<ref name="LLitham"></ref>, which starts to form well after muscles. | ||
In any case its embryology would still be wrong. We have seen that muscle and bone (or their precursors) develop contemporaneously, although the parallel processes start when muscle begins developing around condensations of mesenchyme that have only just begun to differentiate into cartilage, as detailed above. | In any case its embryology would still be wrong. We have seen that muscle and bone (or their precursors) develop contemporaneously, although the parallel processes start when muscle begins developing around condensations of mesenchyme that have only just begun to differentiate into cartilage, as detailed above. | ||
For the same reason the | For the same reason the Quran would still be wrong even if, with further and unjustifiable generosity, we suppose that it means only the very beginning of the formation of the cartilage (chondrification) before they are in any sense complete shapes. Going back earlier still, it can even be pointed out that the precursors of muscles (myoblasts) and precursors to the cartilage (mesenchyme) are present in the limb bud as soon as it arises. | ||
Of course, the natural reading of verse 23:14 is that the bones have some sort of meaningful shape, and can meaningfully be called bones. This is certainly not the case when the condensed mesenchyme has merely started to produce cartilage. Furthermore, the natural reading of verse 23:14 is that all the bones have some meaningful presence worthy of the label 'bones' before Allah clothes them with flesh. As noted in the evidence above, fingers only start to even chondrify after muscle formation is already well underway in the upper part of the limbs. | Of course, the natural reading of verse 23:14 is that the bones have some sort of meaningful shape, and can meaningfully be called bones. This is certainly not the case when the condensed mesenchyme has merely started to produce cartilage. Furthermore, the natural reading of verse 23:14 is that all the bones have some meaningful presence worthy of the label 'bones' before Allah clothes them with flesh. As noted in the evidence above, fingers only start to even chondrify after muscle formation is already well underway in the upper part of the limbs. | ||
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<BR>Transliteration: ''waonthur ila himarika walinajAAalaka ayatan lilnnasi waonthur ila alAAithami kayfa nunshizuha thumma naksooha lahman''}}<br>{{Quran|2|259}}</ref> The main embryology passages such as verse 22:5 suggest that embryological development has similarities with resurrection.<ref name=22-5 /> | <BR>Transliteration: ''waonthur ila himarika walinajAAalaka ayatan lilnnasi waonthur ila alAAithami kayfa nunshizuha thumma naksooha lahman''}}<br>{{Quran|2|259}}</ref> The main embryology passages such as verse 22:5 suggest that embryological development has similarities with resurrection.<ref name=22-5 /> | ||
===The | ===The New Creation Stage=== | ||
After the bones were clothed with flesh, the Quran finally says that Allah "produced it as another creation".<ref>Then fashioned We the drop a clot, then fashioned We the clot a little lump, then fashioned We the little lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh, and then produced it as another creation. So blessed be Allah, the Best of creators!}}<br>{{Quran|23|14}}</ref> Some apologists identify this with the fetal period of pregnancy, which begins at week nine. | |||
===Related claims=== | ===Related claims=== | ||
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=====Intersex People===== | =====Intersex People===== | ||
Furthermore, not everyone is simply a male with XY sex chromosomes, or a female with XX sex chromosomes. A small minority are called [[w:intersex]] due to certain types of genetic or phenotypic sex variations, including:<ref>[https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001669.htm Medline plus - Intersex]</ref> | Furthermore, not everyone is simply a male with XY sex chromosomes, or a female with XX sex chromosomes. A small minority are called [[w:intersex|intersex]] due to certain types of genetic or phenotypic sex variations, including:<ref>[https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001669.htm Medline plus - Intersex]</ref> | ||
* Those who are 46, XY intersex. The person has the chromosomes of a man, but the external genitals are incompletely formed, ambiguous, or clearly female. | * Those who are 46, XY intersex. The person has the chromosomes of a man, but the external genitals are incompletely formed, ambiguous, or clearly female. | ||
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The idea of three membranes around the fetus - ([[w:Chorion|chorion]], [[w:Allantois|allantois]], and [[w:Amnion|amnion]]) was taught by the highly influential Greek physician, Galen. Some critics suggest that the Quranic author is simply repeating this idea, which applies only to the embryonic membranes. The allantois is a sac-like structure which becomes part of the umbilical cord, and thus cannot be described as 'a darkness' for the embryo. The other two membranes, the chorion and amnion, together form the [[w:Amniotic_sac|amniotic sac]], which is quite thin and transparent. | The idea of three membranes around the fetus - ([[w:Chorion|chorion]], [[w:Allantois|allantois]], and [[w:Amnion|amnion]]) was taught by the highly influential Greek physician, Galen. Some critics suggest that the Quranic author is simply repeating this idea, which applies only to the embryonic membranes. The allantois is a sac-like structure which becomes part of the umbilical cord, and thus cannot be described as 'a darkness' for the embryo. The other two membranes, the chorion and amnion, together form the [[w:Amniotic_sac|amniotic sac]], which is quite thin and transparent. | ||
====The Minimum Period of | ====The Minimum Period of Fetal Viability==== | ||
Another claim is that the Quran correctly states that the minimum period for gestation of a viable baby is 6 months. This claim is based on two Quranic verses, the first of which states that a child is weaned for two years (24 lunar months), and the other that the bearing and weaning of a child lasts for 30 lunar months.<ref>And We have enjoined upon man concerning his parents. His mother beareth him in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Give thanks unto Me and unto thy parents. Unto Me is the journeying.<br>{{Quran|31|14}}</ref><ref>And We have commended unto man kindness toward parents. His mother beareth him with reluctance, and bringeth him forth with reluctance, and the bearing of him and the weaning of him is thirty months, till, when he attaineth full strength and reacheth forty years, he saith: My Lord! Arouse me that I may give thanks for the favour wherewith Thou hast favoured me and my parents, and that I may do right acceptable unto Thee. And be gracious unto me In the matter of my seed. Lo! I have turned unto Thee repentant, and lo! I am of those who surrender (unto Thee).<br>{{Quran|46|15}}</ref> Yusuf Ali makes this claim in the notes of his translation for verse 46:15, presumably having noticed that the two verses in combination do not equate to a 9 month pregnancy. | Another claim is that the Quran correctly states that the minimum period for gestation of a viable baby is 6 months. This claim is based on two Quranic verses, the first of which states that a child is weaned for two years (24 lunar months), and the other that the bearing and weaning of a child lasts for 30 lunar months.<ref>And We have enjoined upon man concerning his parents. His mother beareth him in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Give thanks unto Me and unto thy parents. Unto Me is the journeying.<br>{{Quran|31|14}}</ref><ref>And We have commended unto man kindness toward parents. His mother beareth him with reluctance, and bringeth him forth with reluctance, and the bearing of him and the weaning of him is thirty months, till, when he attaineth full strength and reacheth forty years, he saith: My Lord! Arouse me that I may give thanks for the favour wherewith Thou hast favoured me and my parents, and that I may do right acceptable unto Thee. And be gracious unto me In the matter of my seed. Lo! I have turned unto Thee repentant, and lo! I am of those who surrender (unto Thee).<br>{{Quran|46|15}}</ref> Yusuf Ali makes this claim in the notes of his translation for verse 46:15, presumably having noticed that the two verses in combination do not equate to a 9 month pregnancy. | ||
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====The End of Cell Differentiation==== | ====The End of Cell Differentiation==== | ||
Some proponents of Quranic embryology state that the mudghah stage, which is described in one verse | Some proponents of Quranic embryology state that the mudghah stage, which is described in one verse as "partly formed and partly unformed" or "shaped and shapeless", refers to the incomplete cell differentiation observed in this stage.<ref name=22-5 /> | ||
However, | However, cell differentiation occurs throughout the embryonic stage, and even into the fetal period, for example as discussed above regarding bone and muscle development. | ||
{{Core Science}} | {{Core Science}} | ||