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Those who claim that the fountain pen was invented in AD 953 by a Muslim need to produce both the evidence of a fountain pen, and evidence of the type of ink used.
Those who claim that the fountain pen was invented in AD 953 by a Muslim need to produce both the evidence of a fountain pen, and evidence of the type of ink used.


===The system of numbering===
===Systém číslování===
{{Quote||The system of numbering in use all round the world is probably Indian in origin but the style of the numerals is Arabic and first appears in print in the work of the Muslim mathematicians al-Khwarizmi and al-Kindi around 825. Algebra was named after al-Khwarizmi's book, Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, much of whose contents are still in use. The work of Muslim maths scholars was imported into Europe 300 years later by the Italian mathematician Fibonacci. Algorithms and much of the theory of trigonometry came from the Muslim world. And Al-Kindi's discovery of frequency analysis rendered all the codes of the ancient world soluble and created the basis of modern cryptology.<ref name="Paul Vallely"></ref>}}
{{Quote||Systém číslování, který používáme po celém světě je pravděpodobně z Indie, ale styl číslic je arabský a poprvé se objevuje v tisku v práci muslimských matematiků al-Khwarizmi a al-Kindi kolem roku 825. Algebra byla pojmenovány po al-Khwarizmiově knize, Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, většina jejího obsahu se stále používá. Práce muslimských učenců matematiky byla importována do Evropy o 300 let později italským matematikem Fibonaccim. Algoritmy a většina teorie trigonometria přišla z muslimského světa. A Al-Kindiho objev analýzy frekvence ukázal všechny šifry starověkého světa rozpustné a vytvořil základy moderní kryptologie.<ref name="Paul Vallely"></ref>}}
[[File:Brahmi numerals.jpg|thumb|right|Todays system of numbering evolved from the Indian Brahmi numerals which were developed in the beginning of the first century. Before their introduction, Arabs were still using the Greek numeral system, and even the Arabs themselves refer to what many mistakenly call "Arabic numerals" as "Hindu numerals."]]
[[File:Brahmi numerals.jpg|thumb|right|Dnešní systém číslování se vyvinul z indických Brahmi číslic, které byly vyvinuty na začátku prvního století. Před jejich uvedením, arabové stále používali řecký systém číslování, a dokonce sami arabové nazývají to co mnoho lidí špatně nazývá "arabskými číslicemi" jako "hinduistické číslice."]]
Algebra may have been named after a book by al-Khwarizmi titled ''Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah'', but the origins of algebra itself can be traced to the ancient Babylonians who were able to do calculations in an algorithmic fashion.<ref>Dirk J. Struik, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0486602559 A Concise History of Mathematics]'', Dover Publications; 4 Rev Sub edition, 1987, ISBN 9780486602554</ref> Having something named after what popularised or refined it by no means makes it the inventor, and by doing so you would have to discount the works of mathematician Diophantus of Alexandria (200 and 214 AD–284 and 298 AD) who authored a series of books called "Arithmetica" and is commonly referred to as "the father of algebra".  
Algebra mohla být pojmenována podle knihy al-Khwarizmiho zvané ''Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah'', ale kořeny algebry samotné mohou být vystopovány až ke starověkým babyloňanům, kteří byli schopni dělat výpočty algoritmickým způsobem.<ref>Dirk J. Struik, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0486602559 A Concise History of Mathematics]'', Dover Publications; 4 Rev Sub edition, 1987, ISBN 9780486602554</ref> Pokud máte něco pojmenováno po něčem co to zpopularizovalo nebo vylepšilo, ještě neznamená, že jste vynálezce. Navíc byste museli nepočítat práci matematika Diophantus z Alexandrie (200 a 214 AD–284 a 298 AD), který napsal sérii knih jménem "Arithmetica" a je běžně označován za "otce algebry".  


Paul Vallely begrudgingly admits that the system of numbering in use all round the world is 'probably' Indian in origin, yet the title of the supposed Islamic invention still remains "The system of numbering". The first known use of numbers dates back to around 30,000 BC, but it is universally accepted that the system of numbering we use today (the digits 0 to 9) was invented in India.<ref>Berat Jusufi, Jon-Fredrik Stryker, Vegard Larsen, [{{Reference archive|1=http://home.c2i.net/greaker/comenius/9899/indiannumerals/india.html|2=2011-02-08}} The history of Indian numerals], Comenius Maths Project, a Europeen Education Project (EEP)</ref><ref>Joel Achenbach, "[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-909875.html|2=2011-02-08}} Take a Number, Please]", The Washington Post, September 16, 1994</ref> The reason why they are referred to as "Arabic" numerals in the West is due to them being introduced to the Europeans through the Arabs, who in the same way had earlier received them from the Hindus. Likewise, the Arabs themselves commonly refer to them as "Hindu numerals".<ref>Russ Rowlett, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/roman.html|2=2011-02-08}} Roman and "Arabic" Numerals], The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, March 14, 2001, updated July 14, 2004</ref>  
Paul Vallely s nevolí přiznává, že systém číslování, který se používá po celém světě je 'pravděpodobně' z Indie, nicméně titulek tohoto údajného islámského vynálezu je stále "Systém číslování". První známé použití čísel bylo kolem roku -30 000 , ale je obecně uznáváno, že číselný systém, který používáme dnes (čísla 0 až 9) byl vynalezen v Indii.<ref>Berat Jusufi, Jon-Fredrik Stryker, Vegard Larsen, [{{Reference archive|1=http://home.c2i.net/greaker/comenius/9899/indiannumerals/india.html|2=2011-02-08}} The history of Indian numerals], Comenius Maths Project, a Europeen Education Project (EEP)</ref><ref>Joel Achenbach, "[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-909875.html|2=2011-02-08}} Take a Number, Please]", The Washington Post, September 16, 1994</ref> Důvodem, proč se jím říká "arabská" na Západě, je že byly představeny evropanům skrze araby, kteří je přijali dríve od hinduistů. Podobně, sami arabové je běžně nazývají "hindské číslice".<ref>Russ Rowlett, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/roman.html|2=2011-02-08}} Roman and "Arabic" Numerals], The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, March 14, 2001, updated July 14, 2004</ref>  


The use of zero as a number is found in many ancient Indian texts. The concept of negative numbers was recognised between 100–50 BC by the Chinese. Greek and Indian mathematicians studied the theory of rational numbers. (The best known of these works is Euclid's Elements, dated 300 BC. Euclid is also often referred to as the "Father of Geometry".) The earliest use of irrational numbers is in the Indian Sulba Sutras (800–500 BC). The first results concerning transcendental numbers were made by Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1761. The earliest known conception of mathematical infinity appears in the Hindu text Yajur Veda (1,400 and 1,000 BC). The earliest reference to square roots of negative numbers were made by Greek mathematician and inventor Heron of Alexandria (10–70 AD). Prime numbers have been studied throughout recorded history. The mathematical branch of Trigonometry has been studied by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, but it was the ancient Greeks who proved theorems that are equivalent to modern trigonometric formulae. And finally, the earliest known algorithms were developed by ancient Babylonians (1600 BC).<ref>Erich Friedman, [http://www2.stetson.edu/~efriedma/numbers.html What's special about this number?], Stetson University</ref><ref>Steven Galovich, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0155434683 Introduction to Mathematical Structures]'', Harcourt Brace Javanovich, 1989, ISBN 0154534683</ref><ref>Paul Halmos, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0387900926 Naive Set Theory]'' Springer, 1974, ISBN 0387900926</ref><ref>Morris Kline, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0195061357 Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times]'', Oxford University Press, 1972</ref><ref>Whitehead and Russell, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0521626064 Principia Mathematica to *56]'', Cambridge University Press, 1910</ref>
Použití nuly jako čísla je nalezeno v mnoha starověkých indických textech. Koncept negativních čísel byl uznán mezi lety 100-500 př. n. l. číňany. Řečtí a indičtí matematikové studovali teorii racionálních čísel. (Nejznámější z těchto děl je Euklidovy elementy, datované 300 př. n. l.. Euclid ja často také označován za "Otce geometrie".) První použití iracionálních čísel je v indické Sulba Sutras (800–500 př. n. l.). První výsledky ohledně transcendentních čísel udělal Johann Heinrich Lambert roku 1761. První známý koncept matematického nekonečna se objevuje v hindském textu Yajur Veda (1,400 a 1,000 př. n. l.). První zmínka o odmocnině ze záporného čísla udělal řecký matematik a vynálezce Heron z Alexandrie (10–70 AD). Prvočísla byly studovány celou psanou historii. Matematická větev trigonometrie byla studována starověkým egypťany a babyloňany, ale byli to až starověcí řekové, kteří dokázali teorémy, které jsou shodné s moderní trigonometrií. A nakonec, první známé algoritmy byly vyvinuty starověkýmy babylónany (1600 BC).<ref>Erich Friedman, [http://www2.stetson.edu/~efriedma/numbers.html What's special about this number?], Stetson University</ref><ref>Steven Galovich, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0155434683 Introduction to Mathematical Structures]'', Harcourt Brace Javanovich, 1989, ISBN 0154534683</ref><ref>Paul Halmos, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0387900926 Naive Set Theory]'' Springer, 1974, ISBN 0387900926</ref><ref>Morris Kline, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0195061357 Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times]'', Oxford University Press, 1972</ref><ref>Whitehead and Russell, ''[http://amazon.com/dp/0521626064 Principia Mathematica to *56]'', Cambridge University Press, 1910</ref>


As for al-Kindi, while he is thought to be the earliest to describe frequency analysis, the technique itself may not have been discovered by al-Kindi as claimed. Nobody knows who actually discovered/invented/realized that the frequencies of letters could be used to break ciphers,<ref>Simon Singh, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.simonsingh.net/The_Black_Chamber/crackingsubstitution.html|2=2011-02-08}} The Black Chamber: Cracking the substitution cipher], Simon Singh.net</ref> and cryptology itself can be traced back to the time of Julius Caesar.
Co se týče al-Kindi, zatímco je považován za prvního, kdo popsal analýzu frekvence, samotná technika možná nebyla objevena al-Kindim jak je tvrzeno. Nikdo neví, kdo vlastně objevil/vynalezl/uvědomil si, že frekvence písmen mohou být použity pro dešifrování,<ref>Simon Singh, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.simonsingh.net/The_Black_Chamber/crackingsubstitution.html|2=2011-02-08}} The Black Chamber: Cracking the substitution cipher], Simon Singh.net</ref> a sama kryptologie může být vystopována až do časů Julia Cesara.


===Three course meal===
===Tří chodové jídlo===
{{Quote||Ali ibn Nafi, known by his nickname of Ziryab (Blackbird) came from Iraq to Cordoba in the 9th century and brought with him the concept of the three-course meal – soup, followed by fish or meat, then fruit and nuts. He also introduced crystal glasses (which had been invented after experiments with rock crystal by Abbas ibn Firnas - see No 4).<ref name="Paul Vallely"></ref>}}
{{Quote||Ali ibn Nafi, aka Ziryab (Černý pták) přišel z Iráku do Kordoby v 9. století a přinesl s sebou koncept jídla o třech chodech – polévka, po ní ryba nebo aso, poté ovoce a ořechy. Zátoveň představil křišťálové sklo (které bylo objeveno po experimentech s křišťálem Abbas ibn Firnas - viz č. 4).<ref name="Paul Vallely"></ref>}}


Having to include the ''three course meal'' in any religion's top 20 list of inventions is embarrassing. The expression ''scraping the barrel'' comes to mind, but did a Muslim actually invent it? Unsurprisingly, the answer is ''no''. The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD (almost 600 years before the advent of Islam) and with them they brought the concept of the three-course meal<ref>Adam Hart Davis, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/tech_04.shtml|2=2011-02-10}} Discovering Roman Technology: Food and baths], BBC History, May 11, 2009</ref> which consisted of a first course, main course, and dessert.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_cuisine&oldid=325786557 Roman cuisine], Wikipedia, accessed November 16, 2009</ref> A typical starter/first course would be haddock, herring, mullet, or mackerel; the main course roasted beef, pork, or venison served with a prepared sauce and boiled vegetables; followed by a dessert of stuffed fried dates, apples soaked in a cream sauce, or pastries covered in honey and pepper; and to wash it all down, plenty of wine.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080525094754/http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/arl_dinner_party.htm The dinner party], The Romans in Britain</ref> It was the pre-Islamic Persians who introduced the dessert into Asia Minor as far as Ephesus (condemning the Greeks for its omission in meals).
Having to include the ''three course meal'' in any religion's top 20 list of inventions is embarrassing. The expression ''scraping the barrel'' comes to mind, but did a Muslim actually invent it? Unsurprisingly, the answer is ''no''. The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD (almost 600 years before the advent of Islam) and with them they brought the concept of the three-course meal<ref>Adam Hart Davis, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/tech_04.shtml|2=2011-02-10}} Discovering Roman Technology: Food and baths], BBC History, May 11, 2009</ref> which consisted of a first course, main course, and dessert.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_cuisine&oldid=325786557 Roman cuisine], Wikipedia, accessed November 16, 2009</ref> A typical starter/first course would be haddock, herring, mullet, or mackerel; the main course roasted beef, pork, or venison served with a prepared sauce and boiled vegetables; followed by a dessert of stuffed fried dates, apples soaked in a cream sauce, or pastries covered in honey and pepper; and to wash it all down, plenty of wine.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080525094754/http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/arl_dinner_party.htm The dinner party], The Romans in Britain</ref> It was the pre-Islamic Persians who introduced the dessert into Asia Minor as far as Ephesus (condemning the Greeks for its omission in meals).
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