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Embryology in the Quran is often criticised from a modern scientific perspective. More details including references are given throughout this article, but the main criticisms are as follows:
Embryology in the Quran is often criticised from a modern scientific perspective. More details including references are given throughout this article, but the main criticisms are as follows:


#A number of verses<ref>{{Quran|23|13}}, {{Quran-range|70|20|22}}, {{Quran-range|80|18|19}} See discussion in the Nutfah Stage section.</ref> collectively demonstrate a belief that the earliest, nutfah stage of development is made of semen, perhaps mixed with a female fluid, which is placed in the womb for a known term, and where it undergoes various stages of development (as also taught by Galen and in the Jewish Talmud). See [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|this article]] for the most comprehensive explanation and evidence. Furthermore, there is no sign that the author of the Quran was aware of the female egg (ovum).<p>In reality, a single sperm cell penetrates and fuses with the female ovum. This fertilised egg, called a zygote, is then pushed down the fallopian tube for a few days. On the way, cell division begins, and this multi-celled cluster, now called a blastocyst, implants in the uterus (womb).<ref>{{cite web| url=https://crh.ucsf.edu/fertility/conception | title=Conception: How it Works | publisher=University of California San Francisco - Center for Reproductive Health | accessdate=27 January 2019}}</ref></p>
#A number of verses<ref>{{Quran|23|13}}, {{Quran-range|70|20|22}}, {{Quran-range|80|18|19}} See discussion in the Nutfah Stage section.</ref> demonstrate a belief that man is created from semen itself, as a fluid which is placed in the womb for a known term, and undergoes various further stages of development (as also taught by Galen and in the Jewish Talmud). See [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|this article]] for the most comprehensive explanation and evidence. Furthermore, there is no sign that the author of the Quran was aware of the female egg (ovum).<p>In reality, a single sperm cell penetrates and fuses with the female ovum. This fertilised egg, called a zygote, is then pushed down the fallopian tube for a few days. On the way, cell division begins, and this multi-celled cluster, now called a blastocyst, implants in the uterus (womb).<ref>{{cite web| url=https://crh.ucsf.edu/fertility/conception | title=Conception: How it Works | publisher=University of California San Francisco - Center for Reproductive Health | accessdate=27 January 2019}}</ref></p>
#The embryo is then said to be congealed blood. <ref>{{Quran|23|14}}, {{Quran|22|5}}, {{Quran|40|67}} See discussion in the 'Alaqah Stage section.</ref> All the classical [[Tafsir|tafsirs]] (exegetical commentaries) understood the meaning of 'alaqah to be blood or congealed blood, and clotted blood is a definition of the word in classical Arabic dictionaries. Regardless of alternative meanings for this Arabic word, it does not make sense to use a word whose main definitions include an explicit biological meaning (clotted blood) in a description of a biological process (embryology) if that is not the intended meaning; certainly, from the point of divine authorship of the Qur'an, such imprecise meaning would throw into doubt the Qur'an's claim to be "clear." The choice of word now causes a well justified suspicion of inaccuracy, and for centuries misled people into thinking that the embryo is at one stage congealed blood (an actual embryo is at no point blood or a clot of blood<ref>{{cite web| url=https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Timeline_human_development | title=Timeline human development | publisher=University of New South Wales | author=Dr Mark Hill| accessdate=27 January 2019}}</ref>. Similarly, again from the divine authorship and clarity perspective, for the same reason it would not make sense to use this word while intending blood clot as a mere visual analogy.
#The embryo is then said to be congealed blood. <ref>{{Quran|23|14}}, {{Quran|22|5}}, {{Quran|40|67}} See discussion in the 'Alaqah Stage section.</ref> All the classical [[Tafsir|tafsirs]] (exegetical commentaries) understood the meaning of 'alaqah to be blood or congealed blood, and clotted blood is a definition of the word in classical Arabic dictionaries. Regardless of alternative meanings for this Arabic word, it does not make sense to use a word whose main definitions include an explicit biological meaning (clotted blood) in a description of a biological process (embryology) if that is not the intended meaning; certainly, from the point of divine authorship of the Qur'an, such imprecise meaning would throw into doubt the Qur'an's claim to be "clear." The choice of word now causes a well justified suspicion of inaccuracy, and for centuries misled people into thinking that the embryo is at one stage congealed blood (in reality an embryo is at no point blood nor a clot of blood<ref>{{cite web| url=https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Timeline_human_development | title=Timeline human development | publisher=University of New South Wales | author=Dr Mark Hill| accessdate=27 January 2019}}</ref>). Similarly, for the same reason it would not make sense to use this word while intending blood clot as a mere visual analogy.
#The Quran claims that bones are formed before being clothed with flesh.<ref>{{Quran|23|14}} See discussion in the Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages section.</ref> In fact cartilage models of the bones start to form at the same time as and in parallel with surrounding muscles, and this cartilage is literally replaced with bone.<ref>See discussion and scientific references in the sub-sections to the Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages section.</ref>
#The Quran claims that bones are formed before being clothed with flesh.<ref>{{Quran|23|14}} See discussion in the Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages section.</ref> In fact cartilage models of the bones start to form at the same time as and in parallel with surrounding muscles, and this cartilage is literally replaced with bone.<ref>See discussion and scientific references in the sub-sections to the Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages section.</ref>


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The word translated “seed” in Pickthall’s translation is nasl, which means progeny (i.e. descendants).
The word translated “seed” in Pickthall’s translation is nasl, which means progeny (i.e. descendants).
نسل nasl - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000286.pdf Lane’s Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3032</ref><ref>Lo! the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the likeness of Adam. He created him of dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then He said unto him: Be! and he is.<br>{{Quran|3|59}}</ref><ref>We created man from sounding clay [salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ], from mud [hamain حَمَإٍ] molded into shape;<br>{{Quran|15|26}}</ref> This was also the opinion of classical scholars such as ibn Kathir.
نسل nasl - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000286.pdf Lane’s Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3032</ref><ref>Lo! the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the likeness of Adam. He created him of dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then He said unto him: Be! and he is.<br>{{Quran|3|59}}</ref><ref>We created man from sounding clay [salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ], from mud [hamain حَمَإٍ] molded into shape;<br>{{Quran|15|26}}</ref> This was also the opinion of classical scholars such as Ibn Kathir.


Verses like these refer to Adam specifically, that [[Creation of Humans from Clay|man was made ''from'' clay]] (min مِّنْ means 'from' or 'of'), and that clay was a building material which was moulded and shaped, and not a catalytic compound as some apologetics claim in an attempt to link the Quran with one theory about the origin of all life on Earth.
Verses like these refer to Adam specifically, that [[Creation of Humans from Clay|man was made ''from'' clay]] (min مِّنْ means 'from' or 'of'), and that clay was a building material which was moulded and shaped, and not a catalytic compound as some apologetics claim in an attempt to link the Quran with one theory about the origin of all life on Earth. Yet another verse ({{Quran|55|14}}) adds that Allah created man "from clay like [that of] pottery" (min ṣalṣālin kal-fakhāri مِن صَلْصَٰلٍ كَٱلْفَخَّارِ).


While again not strictly related to embryology, another claim on some Islamic websites is that clay and humans have similar compositions. The Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology defines clay as, "a fine textured, sedimentary, or residual deposit. It consists of hydrated silicates of aluminum mixed with various impurities". The essential elements in clay are thus silicon, aluminum, hydrogen and oxygen. Silicon and Aluminum have extremely limited, if any, roles to play in the maintenance of life.<ref>Fenchel, Tom 2003. The origin and Early Evolution of Life. Oxford University Press. Page 27.</ref> Other human-required elements (such as nitrogen, sodium etc) are only found in trace amounts in clay and can be regarded as contaminants. There is no similarity between the compositions of clay and humans.
While again not strictly related to embryology, another claim on some Islamic websites is that clay and humans have similar compositions. The Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology defines clay as, "a fine textured, sedimentary, or residual deposit. It consists of hydrated silicates of aluminum mixed with various impurities". The essential elements in clay are thus silicon, aluminum, hydrogen and oxygen. Silicon and Aluminum have extremely limited, if any, roles to play in the maintenance of life.<ref>Fenchel, Tom 2003. The origin and Early Evolution of Life. Oxford University Press. Page 27.</ref> Other human-required elements (such as nitrogen, sodium etc) are only found in trace amounts in clay and can be regarded as contaminants. There is no similarity between the compositions of clay and humans.
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An example of nutfah usage can be found in a pre-Islamic poem where it is used to mean “the small quantity of wine that remained in a wineskin”.<ref>Irfan Shahid, “Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century. Volume 2, Part 2”, p.145, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2009</ref>
An example of nutfah usage can be found in a pre-Islamic poem where it is used to mean “the small quantity of wine that remained in a wineskin”.<ref>Irfan Shahid, “Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century. Volume 2, Part 2”, p.145, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2009</ref>


Verses 80:18-19, and 77:20-22 together with 23:13 strongly imply that it is semen that is stored in the womb and developed into the embryo, as confirmed in the hadiths and previously believed by the [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|Jews and Greeks]].
Verses 80:18-19, and 77:20-22 together with 23:13 strongly imply that a small amount of semen is stored in the womb and developed into the embryo, as confirmed in the hadiths and [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|previously taught by the Greeks and in the Jewish Talmud]].


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|80|18|19}}|From what thing [shayinشَىْءٍ] doth He create him? From a drop of seed [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ]. He createth him and proportioneth him}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|80|18|19}}|From what thing [shayinشَىْءٍ] doth He create him? From a drop of seed [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ]. He createth him and proportioneth him}}


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|77|20|22}}|Did We not create you from a base fluid [ma-in maheenin مَّآءٍ مَّهِينٍ]? Which We laid up [jaAAalnahu جَعَلْنَٰهُ] in a safe abode [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ], For a period (of gestation), determined (according to need)?}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|77|20|22}}|Did We not create you from a base fluid [ma-in maheenin مَّآءٍ مَّهِينٍ]? Which We laid up [jaAAalnahu جَعَلْنَٰهُ] in a safe abode [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ], For a known term?}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|23|13}}|Then placed him [jaAAalnahu جَعَلْنَٰهُ] as a drop (of seed) [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] in a safe lodging [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ];}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|23|13}}|Then placed him [jaAAalnahu جَعَلْنَٰهُ] as a drop (of seed) [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] in a safe lodging [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ];}}
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As can be seen in the above quotes, verses 77:20-21 closely parallel 23:13. Both say "We placed it (jaAAalnahu) in a safe abode (qararin makeen)", and one uses the word nutfah while the other uses the words maa' maheenin ('water distained'). Maa' was another common euphemism for semen. The 'hu' ending to jaAAalnahu in both verses can mean him or it, and probably means the former in 23:13 ('We placed him'). However, in 77:21 it must mean the latter ('We placed it') in reference to the liquid because the previous verse uses the 2nd person "you" and then mentions the liquid.
As can be seen in the above quotes, verses 77:20-21 closely parallel 23:13. Both say "We placed it (jaAAalnahu) in a safe abode (qararin makeen)", and one uses the word nutfah while the other uses the words maa' maheenin ('water distained'). Maa' was another common euphemism for semen. The 'hu' ending to jaAAalnahu in both verses can mean him or it, and probably means the former in 23:13 ('We placed him'). However, in 77:21 it must mean the latter ('We placed it') in reference to the liquid because the previous verse uses the 2nd person "you" and then mentions the liquid.


Another criticism is that the Quran makes no mention of the female egg (ovum). It is merely an assumption by apologists that 'nutfatun amshajin' (amshajin means mixed<ref>أَمْشَاج Amshajan  - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000245.pdf] Volume 7 Page 2717</ref>) in verse 76:2<ref>Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm [nutfatin amshajin نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ], in order to try him: So We gave him (the gifts), of Hearing and Sight.<br>{{Quran|76|2}}</ref> includes the female gamete (ovum), and in any case the sperm cell is not swimming in male semen at the time of fertilization (see the [[Embryology_in_the_Quran#Mingled_male_and_female_fluids|Mingled male and female fluids]] section below).
It is sometimes claimed that safe abode (qararin makeen) in 23:13 refers to the female ovum rather than the womb. However, critics note that this interpretation ignores the same phrase in 77:22 where it would not make sense of the words "For a known term", and that the ovum is penetrated by a single sperm cell and not the "fluid" (maa').


The term ‘nutfatun amshaajin’ in verse 76:2 could alternatively refer to the sperm-menstrual blood union of Aristotle and the ancient Indian embryologists, or the two semens hypothesis of Hippocrates and Galen, or even the readily observed mingling of semen and vaginal discharge during sexual intercourse. In other words, the fact the Quran does not explicitly state that ‘nutfatun amshaajin’ contains the ovum, together with the existence of other possible explanations, means that it is illogical to assume the former and not the latter.  
Indeed, a common criticism is that the Quran makes no mention of the female egg (ovum). In response it is sometimes claimed that 'nutfatun amshajin' (amshajin means mixed<ref>أَمْشَاج Amshajan  - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000245.pdf] Volume 7 Page 2717</ref>) in {{Quran|76|2}} includes the female gamete (ovum).<ref>Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm [nutfatin amshajin نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ], in order to try him: So We gave him (the gifts), of Hearing and Sight.<br>{{Quran|76|2}}</ref> Critics counter that this is merely an apologetic assumption and that in any case the sperm cell is no longer swimming in male semen at the time when it reaches the ovum (see the [[Embryology_in_the_Quran#Mingled_male_and_female_fluids|Mingled male and female fluids]] section below).
 
The term ‘nutfatun amshaajin’ in verse 76:2 could alternatively refer to the sperm-menstrual blood union of Aristotle and the ancient Indian embryologists, but more likely the two semens hypothesis of Hippocrates and Galen ([[Sources_of_Islamic_Theories_of_Reproduction|also evident in various hadiths]]), which in turn was derived from the readily observed mingling of semen and vaginal discharge during sexual intercourse.


Some critics argue that in fact, the Quran displays an understanding that is contrary to the role of the ovum in procreation, for verse 2:223 states that wives are tilth. This suggests they are like the earth, which simply provides nutrients and receives the seed from the male.<ref>Your women are a tilth for you (to cultivate) go to your tilth as ye will, and send (good deeds) before you for your souls, and fear Allah, and know that ye will (one day) meet Him. Give glad tidings to believers, (O Muhammad).<br>{{Quran|2|223}}</ref>
Some critics argue that in fact, the Quran displays an understanding that is contrary to the role of the ovum in procreation, for verse 2:223 states that wives are tilth. This suggests they are like the earth, which simply provides nutrients and receives the seed from the male.<ref>Your women are a tilth for you (to cultivate) go to your tilth as ye will, and send (good deeds) before you for your souls, and fear Allah, and know that ye will (one day) meet Him. Give glad tidings to believers, (O Muhammad).<br>{{Quran|2|223}}</ref>
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Many apologists claim that 'alaqah in the Quran means a leech (in a metaphorical sense), and that this is similar to an embryo. However, unlike a leech, which simply sucks blood from its host, the embryo circulates and exchanges gases, nutrients and waste products with its mother. Most significantly, the placental membrane or barrier ensures that the embryo does not take from or exchange blood with its mother, who may have a different blood type.<ref>Barry Mitchell & Ram Sharma 2009. Embryology: An Illustrated Colour Text. Second Edition. Churchill Livingstone ElSevier. Page 10-12</ref> Furthermore, a leech attaches itself directly to the surface of its host. In contrast, the [[w:Blastocyst|blastocyst]] stage embryo implants into the uterine wall ([[w:Endometrium|endometrium]]) by means of an outer cell layer surrounding it, called the [[w:Syncytiotrophoblast|syncytiotrophoblast]]. It is the syncytiotrophoblast which invades the endometrium, burying the entire embryo within the wall (unlike a leech), establishes a circulatory connection, and will later form the outer layer of the [[w:Placenta#Development|placenta]].
Many apologists claim that 'alaqah in the Quran means a leech (in a metaphorical sense), and that this is similar to an embryo. However, unlike a leech, which simply sucks blood from its host, the embryo circulates and exchanges gases, nutrients and waste products with its mother. Most significantly, the placental membrane or barrier ensures that the embryo does not take from or exchange blood with its mother, who may have a different blood type.<ref>Barry Mitchell & Ram Sharma 2009. Embryology: An Illustrated Colour Text. Second Edition. Churchill Livingstone ElSevier. Page 10-12</ref> Furthermore, a leech attaches itself directly to the surface of its host. In contrast, the [[w:Blastocyst|blastocyst]] stage embryo implants into the uterine wall ([[w:Endometrium|endometrium]]) by means of an outer cell layer surrounding it, called the [[w:Syncytiotrophoblast|syncytiotrophoblast]]. It is the syncytiotrophoblast which invades the endometrium, burying the entire embryo within the wall (unlike a leech), establishes a circulatory connection, and will later form the outer layer of the [[w:Placenta#Development|placenta]].


A leech has many characteristics such as size, behaviour, shape, color, appearance. It makes no sense for the author to have used 'alaqah in a metaphorical sense when his listeners could not be expected to know in what respect the analogy applies. It is no more than a Texan Sharpshooter fallacy<ref>"The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is an informal fallacy in which pieces of information that have no relationship to one another are called out for their similarities, and that similarity is used for claiming the existence of a pattern. This fallacy is the philosophical/rhetorical application of the multiple comparisons problem (in statistics) and apophenia (in cognitive psychology). It is related to the clustering illusion, which refers to the tendency in human cognition to interpret patterns where none actually exist. The name comes from a joke about a Texan who fires some shots at the side of a barn, then paints a target centered on the biggest cluster of hits and claims to be a sharpshooter."<br>{{cite web|url= http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy|title= Texas sharpshooter fallacy|publisher= Wikipedia|author= |date= accessed August 13, 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTexas_sharpshooter_fallacy&date=2013-08-13|deadurl=no}}</ref>, typical of Islamic miracle claims, to choose one characteristic - shape - which to a very and arbitrarily limited degree has similarity with that of an embryo (in their eyes) and to then draw any conclusions. This is particularly so given that the early embryo passes through a wide range of shapes and that both a leech and human embryo are biological organisms. Moreover, when depicting the embryo such apologetics have to conveniently ignore the embryo's yolk sac, which gradually becomes incorporated into its developing gut.
A leech has many characteristics such as size, behaviour, shape, color, appearance. It makes no sense for the author to have used 'alaqah in a metaphorical sense when his listeners could not be expected to know in what respect the analogy applies. It is no more than a Texan Sharpshooter fallacy<ref>"The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is an informal fallacy in which pieces of information that have no relationship to one another are called out for their similarities, and that similarity is used for claiming the existence of a pattern. This fallacy is the philosophical/rhetorical application of the multiple comparisons problem (in statistics) and apophenia (in cognitive psychology). It is related to the clustering illusion, which refers to the tendency in human cognition to interpret patterns where none actually exist. The name comes from a joke about a Texan who fires some shots at the side of a barn, then paints a target centered on the biggest cluster of hits and claims to be a sharpshooter."<br>[[w:Texas sharpshooter fallacy|Texas sharpshooter fallacy]]</ref>, typical of Islamic miracle claims, to choose one characteristic - shape - which to a very and arbitrarily limited degree has similarity with that of an embryo (in their eyes) and to then draw any conclusions. This is particularly so given that the early embryo passes through a wide range of shapes and that both a leech and human embryo are biological organisms. Moreover, when depicting the embryo such apologetics have to conveniently ignore the embryo's yolk sac, which gradually becomes incorporated into its developing gut.


Above and beyond all of this, "leech" is not the most common meaning of this word; clot works much better here, and most translators including Arberry, Pickthall, and Sahih international all translate it this way. The translation of "leech", "leech-like embryo" or "embryo" only appeared in the modern age after the discoveries of embryology, and were not known in pre-modern translations.   
Above and beyond all of this, "leech" is not the most common meaning of this word; clot works much better here, and most translators including Arberry, Pickthall, and Sahih international all translate it this way. The translation of "leech", "leech-like embryo" or "embryo" only appeared in the modern age after the discoveries of embryology, and were not known in pre-modern translations.   
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The scientific evidence shows that the development of cartilage/bone and muscles is contemporaneous.  
The scientific evidence shows that the development of cartilage/bone and muscles is contemporaneous.  


A very detailed account of musculo-skeletal development in the human limb by clinical-geneticist Robert Jan Galjaard covers this subject.<ref>Galjaard, R.J.H. [http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/10474/030924_Galjaard,%20Robert-Jan%20Harmen.pdf Mapping Studies of Congenital Limb Anomalies]. Ablasserdam: Haveka, B.V., 2003, page 16 [http://www.webcitation.org/6lFwBQq9z webcitation archive link]</ref> It details that muscle precursor cells migrate from the somites into the limb buds (ca. day 26). This is well before the condensing core of mesenchyme has started to chondrify into cartilage bone models in the upper part of the upper limb (ca. day 37), followed by the lower part (ca. day 41). The myoblasts have grouped into distinct dorsal and ventral masses by that stage (they do so in the upper limb by day 36 and the start of chondrification according to Sivakumar et. al<ref>Sivakumar, B. et. al. ''Congenital Hand Differences'' in Farhadieh, R. et. al. (ed.) Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery: Approaches and Techniques, Chichester: Wiley, 2015, p.660 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tCq9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA660#v=onepage&q&f=false Google books preview]</ref>). The upper limbs later start to ossify (ca. day 54). Chondrification of mesenchyme, the grouping of myogenic masses, and ossification all occur in a proximal-distal order (upper to lower part of each limb). The digits of the hands only start to chondrify ca. day 51.
A very detailed account of musculo-skeletal development in the human limb by clinical-geneticist Robert Jan Galjaard covers this subject.<ref>Galjaard, R.J.H. [http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/10474/030924_Galjaard,%20Robert-Jan%20Harmen.pdf Mapping Studies of Congenital Limb Anomalies]. Ablasserdam: Haveka, B.V., 2003, page 16 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220409030333/https://repub.eur.nl/pub/10474/030924_Galjaard,%20Robert-Jan%20Harmen.pdf archive])</ref> It details that muscle precursor cells migrate from the somites into the limb buds (ca. day 26). This is well before the condensing core of mesenchyme has started to chondrify into cartilage bone models in the upper part of the upper limb (ca. day 37), followed by the lower part (ca. day 41). The myoblasts have grouped into distinct dorsal and ventral masses by that stage (they do so in the upper limb by day 36 and the start of chondrification according to Sivakumar et. al<ref>Sivakumar, B. et. al. ''Congenital Hand Differences'' in Farhadieh, R. et. al. (ed.) Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery: Approaches and Techniques, Chichester: Wiley, 2015, p.660 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tCq9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA660#v=onepage&q&f=false Google books preview]</ref>). The upper limbs later start to ossify (ca. day 54). Chondrification of mesenchyme, the grouping of myogenic masses, and ossification all occur in a proximal-distal order (upper to lower part of each limb). The digits of the hands only start to chondrify ca. day 51.


Professor Peter Law concurs that myoblasts are found in the limb buds day 26.<ref>Law, Peter et al., ''Pioneering Human Myoblast Genome Therapy as a Platform Technology of Regenerative Medicine.'' In: Stem Cell Therapy. Erik Greer (Editor). Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2006. Page 3.</ref>
Professor Peter Law concurs that myoblasts are found in the limb buds day 26.<ref>Law, Peter et al., ''Pioneering Human Myoblast Genome Therapy as a Platform Technology of Regenerative Medicine.'' In: Stem Cell Therapy. Erik Greer (Editor). Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2006. Page 3.</ref>
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The prefix fa before kasawna (we clothed) means "and then", indicating an uninterrupted sequence.<ref>فَ fa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2322</ref> Further emphasising this, each stage is mentioned twice ("''nutfah''...''nutfah''...''alaqah'''...''alaqah''...''lump'', then we made the ''lump'' ''bones'', then we clothed the ''bones'' with flesh"). The whole verse conveys a sequential process.  
The prefix fa before kasawna (we clothed) means "and then", indicating an uninterrupted sequence.<ref>فَ fa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2322</ref> Further emphasising this, each stage is mentioned twice ("''nutfah''...''nutfah''...''alaqah'''...''alaqah''...''lump'', then we made the ''lump'' ''bones'', then we clothed the ''bones'' with flesh"). The whole verse conveys a sequential process.  


However, in reality there is no stage at which the bones in any sense have been created but unclothed with flesh.  
In reality, the verse is not compatible with, let alone a good description of musculoskeletal development. There is no scientific basis for a two-stage process by which bones have in any sense been created before the process of muscle formation is underway.  


Firstly, it is clear from the above sections that actual bone formation (ossification) begins long after the process of muscle formation has begun to develop around its precursors. Since the myoblasts have already migrated and aggregated into distinct masses, nor can their subsequent fusing into myotubes and muscle fibres be described as "clothing" the bones (which in any case ossify and continue to grow in parallel with muscle development). Therefore, there is no scientific basis for the Quranic claim of a stage in which bone is later clothed with flesh after its own formation.  
Firstly, it is clear from the above sections that actual bone formation (ossification) begins long after the process of muscle formation has begun to develop around its precursors. Since the myoblasts have already migrated and aggregated into distinct masses, nor can their subsequent fusing into myotubes and muscle fibres be described as "clothing" the bones (which in any case ossify and continue to grow in parallel with muscle development) - the masses were already there.


It is sometimes claimed that the Quran was only referring to precursor cartilage models of the bones and not bone itself. However, this does not explain why the author of the Quran mentioned not cartilage (ghudhroof)<ref name="LLghudtroof">غضروف ghudhroof, alternatively spelt غرضوف ghurdoof - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000032.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2248</ref>) but only bone ('itham)<ref name="LLitham"></ref>, which literally replaces the cartilage and starts to form well after muscle building blocks are in place.
It is sometimes claimed that the Quran was only referring to precursor cartilage models of the bones and not bone itself. However, this does not explain why the author of the Quran mentioned not cartilage (ghudhroof)<ref name="LLghudtroof">غضروف ghudhroof, alternatively spelt غرضوف ghurdoof - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000032.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2248</ref>) but only bone ('itham)<ref name="LLitham"></ref>, which literally replaces the cartilage and starts to form well after muscle building blocks are in place.


In any case its description would still be wrong. The evidence set out above shows that muscle and bone (or their precursors) develop contemporaneously, although the parallel processes start when myoblasts migrate and form distinct masses around condensations of mesenchyme that have only just begun to differentiate into cartilage, as detailed above.
In any case its description would still be incompatible with scientific reality. The evidence set out above shows that muscle and bone (or their precursors) develop contemporaneously, although the parallel processes start when myoblasts migrate and form distinct masses around condensations of mesenchyme that have only just begun to differentiate into cartilage, as detailed above.


For the same reason the Quran would still be wrong even to suppose, with a further stretch, that it means only the very beginning of the formation of the cartilage (chondrification) before they are in any sense complete shapes. Going back earlier still, it can even be pointed out that the precursors of muscles (myoblasts) and precursors to the cartilage (mesenchyme) are present in the limb bud as soon as it arises.  
For the same reason the Quran would still be wrong even to suppose, with a further stretch, that it means only the very beginning of the formation of the cartilage (chondrification) before they are in any sense complete shapes. Going back earlier still, it can even be pointed out that the precursors of muscles (myoblasts) and precursors to the cartilage (mesenchyme) are present in the limb bud as soon as it arises.  
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However, cell differentiation occurs throughout the embryonic stage, and even into the fetal period, for example as discussed above regarding bone and muscle development.
However, cell differentiation occurs throughout the embryonic stage, and even into the fetal period, for example as discussed above regarding bone and muscle development.
==Classical Commentaries==
As mentioned in the opening section, classical commentators understood the verses in accordance with incorrect scientific theories at the time. Critics note how naturally they did so, and that the commentaries have value as linguistic evidence for the relevant Arabic words. Two of the major [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/23.14 tafsirs] translated into English (on Islamic websites) state the following regarding {{Quran|23|14}}:
{{Quote|{{cite web|url=https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/23.14 | name=Ibn Kathir| title=Tafsir Ibn Kathir 23:14}}|...(Then We made the Nutfah into a clot,) meaning, `then We made the Nutfah, which is the water gushing forth that comes from the loins of man, i.e., his back, and the ribs of woman, i.e., the bones of her chest, between the clavicle and the breast. Then it becomes a red clot, like an elongated clot.' `Ikrimah said, "This is blood.''
(then We made the clot into a little lump of flesh,) which is like a piece of flesh with no shape or features.
(then We made out of that little lump of flesh bones,) meaning, `We gave it shape, with a head, two arms and two legs, with its bones, nerves and veins.'
(then We clothed the bones with flesh,) meaning, `We gave it something to cover it and strengthen it.'
(and then We brought it forth as another creation.) means, `then We breathed the soul into it, and it moved and became a new creature, one that could hear, see, understand and move.}}{{Quote|{{cite web|url=https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/23.14 | name=Al-Jalalayn | title=Tafsir Al-Jalalayn 23:14}}|Then We transformed the drop [of semen] into a clot, congealed blood. Then We transformed the clot into a [little] lump of flesh (mudgha), a piece of flesh, about the size of what one would be able to chew (mā yumdagh). Then We transformed the lump of flesh into bones. Then We clothed the bones with flesh (a variant reading in both instances [instead of the plurals ‘izāman and al-‘izāma, ‘the bones’] is [singular] ‘azman [and ‘al-‘azma], ‘the bone’; and in all three instances above khalaqnā, means ‘We made it become’ [as opposed to ‘We created’]). Then We produced him as [yet] another creature, by breathing into him [Our] Spirit. So blessed be God, the best of creators!, that is, [the best of] determiners (the specificier noun for ahsana, ‘the best’, has been omitted because it is obvious: khalqan, ‘in terms of creation’).}}


==See also==
==See also==


*[[Sources of Islamic Theories of Reproduction]]
*[[Semen Production in the Quran]]
*[[Embryology in Islamic Scripture]]
*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]
*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]


{{Hub4|Embryology|Embryology}}
==External Links==


==External Links==
*[https://embryologyinthequran.blogspot.com Embryology in the Quran: Much Ado about Nothing] ''- Captain Disguise and Martin Taverille''
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4EIapJ7Ivk Greco-Roman Embryology in the Quran Part I], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AaYpxz63E8Y Part II], and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dUhNSFmBQM Part III] - The Urdu Free Thinker - Youtube.com (videos)
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20060214032231/http://www.geocities.com/freethoughtmecca/embryo.html Quranic Embryology (archive)] ''- Dr. Yusuf Needham and Dr. Butrus Needbeer, FreeThought Mecca''
*[http://answering-islam.org/Quran/Science/embryo.html Embryology in the Quran] ''- Dr. Lactantius, Answering Islam''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121107040710/http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2011/11/23/islamic-embryology-overblown-b/ Islamic embryology: overblown balderdash (archive)] ''- Dr. PZ Myers' response to Hamza Andreas Tzortzis’ paper, Embryology in the Quran''


*[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20060214032231/http://www.geocities.com/freethoughtmecca/embryo.html|2=2012-06-11}} Quranic Embryology] ''- Dr. Yusuf Needham and Dr. Butrus Needbeer, FreeThought Mecca''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://answering-islam.org/Quran/Science/embryo.html|2=2012-06-11}} Embryology in the Quran] ''- Dr. Lactantius, Answering Islam''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://mukto-mona.com/wordpress/?p=1166|2=2012-06-11}} Islamic embryology: overblown balderdash] ''- Dr. PZ Myers' response to Hamza Andreas Tzortzis’ paper, Embryology in the Quran''


==References==  
==References==  
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[[Category:Reproductive sciences]]
[[Category:Reproductive sciences]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[ar:علم_الأجنّة_في_القرآن]]
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