Cosmology of the Quran: Difference between revisions

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{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.}}


===The Earth or Earths===
===The Earth or Earths and its waters===


Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that the Qur'an "takes for granted" the flatness of the earth, a common motif among the scientifically naive people at that time<ref>Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 211</ref> (though the ancient Greeks and certain Christian scholars of the 6th century, in dispute with their counterparts in the east, believed in its sphericity, as noted by van Bladel<ref>Van Bladel, Kevin, ''Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context'' pp. 224-226</ref>). Damien Janos in another paper on Qur'anic cosmography has similarly noted that while the exact shape of its boundaries are not described, "what is clear is that the Qurʾān and the early Muslim tradition do not uphold the conception of a spherical earth and a spherical universe. This was a view that later prevailed in the learned circles of Muslim society as a result of the infiltration Of Ptolemaic astronomy".<ref>Damien Janos, "Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective: some note on the formation of a religious wordview", Religion 42(2), 2012, pp. 217-218</ref>
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that the Qur'an "takes for granted" the flatness of the earth, a common motif among the scientifically naive people at that time, while it has "not even one hint of a spherical earth"<ref>Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 211</ref> Meanwhile, certain Christian scholars of the 6th century influenced by the ancient Greeks, in dispute with their counterparts in the east, believed in its sphericity, as noted by van Bladel<ref>Van Bladel, Kevin, ''Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context'' pp. 224-226</ref>). Damien Janos in another paper on Qur'anic cosmography has similarly noted that while the exact shape of its boundaries are not described, "what is clear is that the Qurʾān and the early Muslim tradition do not uphold the conception of a spherical earth and a spherical universe. This was a view that later prevailed in the learned circles of Muslim society as a result of the infiltration Of Ptolemaic astronomy".<ref>Damien Janos, "Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective: some note on the formation of a religious wordview", Religion 42(2), 2012, pp. 217-218</ref>


Repeatedly, the Qur'an uses various Arabic terms that convey a flat earth, spread out like a carpet. For a much more comprehensive complilation of verses, see [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth]].
Repeatedly, the Qur'an uses various Arabic terms that convey a flat earth, spread out like a carpet. For a much more comprehensive complilation of verses, see [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth]].
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I heard Allah's Apostle say: He who took a span of earth wrongly '''would be made to wear around his neck''' seven earths on the Day of Resurrection.}}
I heard Allah's Apostle say: He who took a span of earth wrongly '''would be made to wear around his neck''' seven earths on the Day of Resurrection.}}


Janos notes that Sumerian incantations dated to the 1st millenium BCE mention both the seven heavens and seven earths (citing Wayne Horowitz, who translated them as "the heavens are seven, the earths are seven").<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' p. 221</ref> Tabataba'i and Mirsadri similarly note from Horowitz that this tradition was popular in the near east in first millenia BCE and CE, though only the seven heavens, but not seven earths found their way into the Herbrew literature.<ref>Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 209</ref>
Janos notes that Sumerian incantations dated to the 1st millenium BCE mention both the seven heavens and seven earths (citing Wayne Horowitz, who translated them as "the heavens are seven, the earths are seven").<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' p. 221</ref> Tabataba'i and Mirsadri similarly note from Horowitz that this tradition was popular in the near east in first millenia BCE and CE, though also that only the seven heavens, but not seven earths found their way into the Herbrew literature.<ref>Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 209</ref>
 
While contrasting the Biblical view of fresh and salty waters with the two seas of certain Qur'anic verses (fresh and salty - see for example {{Quran|25|53}} and the quest of Moses to find their junction in {{Quran|18|60}}, they note another difference to the Biblical and Mesopotamian cosmologies, which is that the Qur'an does not mention an ocean encircling the flat disk of the earth.<ref>Ibid. pp. 213-214</ref>
 
The two seas are very much on the surface of the earth.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|19|24}}|He hath loosed the two seas. They meet. There is a barrier between them. They encroach not (one upon the other). Which is it, of the favours of your Lord, that ye deny? There cometh forth from both of them the pearl and coral-stone. His are the ships displayed upon the sea, like banners.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|60}}|And [mention] when Moses said to his servant, "I will not cease [traveling] until I reach the junction of the two seas or continue for a long period."}}


===The Seven Heavens and their Denizens===
===The Seven Heavens and their Denizens===
====The shape of the heavens====
====The shape of the heavens====


While many classical Muslim scholars, and modern academics (due to other ancient cosmologies) tend to assume that the Qur'anic heavens are domed, Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that there is no indication in the Qur'an that they touch the earth's boundaries. The sun and moon are placed in the heavens ({{Quran|71|16}} and {{Quran|78|13}}), the lowest of which are adorned with lamps {{Quran|41|12}}. Janos discusses verses {{Quran|21|30}} and {{Quran|36|40}} in which the sun and moon (as well as night and day) move in a "falak" (circuitous course/sphere/hemishere - see [[Geocentrism and the Quran]]), but notes that this was not considered semantically identical with the samawat, or heavens, and they were not necessarily conceived as having the same shape.<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' pp. 223-229</ref>
While many classical Muslim scholars, and modern academics (due to their interpretation of other ancient cosmologies) tend to assume that the Qur'anic heavens are domed, Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that there is no indication in the Qur'an that they touch the earth's boundaries. The sun and moon are placed in the heavens ({{Quran|71|16}} and {{Quran|78|13}}), the lowest of which are adorned with lamps {{Quran|41|12}}. Janos discusses verses {{Quran|21|30}} and {{Quran|36|40}} in which the sun and moon (as well as night and day) move in a "falak" (an ambiguous term that may have meant a circuitous course/sphere/hemishere - see [[Geocentrism and the Quran]]), but notes that this was not considered semantically identical with the samawat, or heavens, and they were not necessarily conceived as having the same shape.<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' pp. 223-229</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on earth; Moreover His design comprehended the heavens, for He gave order and perfection to the seven firmaments; and of all things He hath perfect knowledge.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on earth; Moreover His design comprehended the heavens, for He gave order and perfection to the seven firmaments; and of all things He hath perfect knowledge.}}
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* Verses in which the seven heavens are likened to the earth (their interpretation of {{Quran|67|12}} mentioned above), including in terms of their width e.g. {{Quran|57|21}} "a Garden whereof the breadth is as the breadth of the heavens and the earth".
* Verses in which the seven heavens are likened to the earth (their interpretation of {{Quran|67|12}} mentioned above), including in terms of their width e.g. {{Quran|57|21}} "a Garden whereof the breadth is as the breadth of the heavens and the earth".
* These heavens are arranged in layers ({{Quran|67|3}}, {{Quran|71|15}}, which more obviously suggests flatness, and this word tibiqan is similar to the Babylonian tubuqati, suggesting that seven superimposed flat heavens is a belief they have in common.
* These heavens are arranged in layers ({{Quran|67|3}}, {{Quran|71|15}}, which more obviously suggests flatness, and this word tibiqan is similar to the Babylonian tubuqati, suggesting that seven superimposed flat heavens is a belief they have in common.
* While interest in the heavens (as opposed to their contents) is largely absent from pre-Islamic poetry, the poems of Umayya Ibn Abi Salt likened the heavens to seven floors one above another, and liken the carpet shaped earth to the uplifted heaven.
* Despite the obvious potential use of tents as an analogy for the heavens, the Qur'an does not do so. Mountains act as pegs to stabilise the earth rather than hold down a heavenly tent canopy.
* Despite the obvious potential use of tents as an analogy for the heavens, the Qur'an does not do so. Mountains act as pegs to stabilise the earth rather than hold down a heavenly tent canopy.
* While interest in the heavens (as opposed to their contents) is largely absent from pre-Islamic poetry, those of Umayya Ibn Abi Salt liken the seven heavens to seven floors above one another, and liken the carpet shaped earth to the uplifted heaven.
* The notion of a flat sky was common in ancient Mesopotamia and the near east (as also noted by Janos, citing Horowitz<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' pp. 216-217</ref>) though some scholars instead say that the universal belief of the scientifically naive peoples of the world was that it was dome shaped. Those who suppose that the pre-Islamir Arabs had a dome shaped conception due to their tent dwellings ignore the evidence that Mecca was an urban environment with flat roofs.
* The notion of a flat sky was common in ancient Mesopotamia and the near east (as also noted by Janos, citing Horowitz<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' pp. 216-217</ref>) though some scholars disagree and instead say the belief was that it was dome shaped. Those who suppose that the pre-Islamir Arabs had a dome shaped conception due to their tent dwellings ignore the evidence that Mecca was an urban environment with flat roofs.
* They argue that the Qur'an's ideological antipathy to the Bedouins would have extended to their use of tents for pagan practices, and for this reason may have rejected any possible existing analogies with the heavens.
* They argue that the Qur'an's ideological antipathy to the Bedouins, would have extended to their tents which were also used for pagan practices, and for this reason may have rejected any possible existing analogies with the heavens.


They note that Janos too favours a flat heavens interpretation. For him, it was enough that the Qur'anic firmament is likened to a canopy or roof (bina, saaf, which latter originally seems to have referred to flat roofs - see {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|40|64}}) and arranged in layers - they agree with him on the strength of this latter point), though he is also open to the dome-shaped view based on tafsir sources rather than any internal evidence, while van Bladel relies mainly on pre-Quranic sources for his discussion of whether the Qur'anic heavens are a dome, tent or roof.
They note that Janos too favours a flat heavens interpretation. For him, it was enough that the Qur'anic firmament is likened to a canopy or roof (bina, saaf, which latter originally seems to have referred to flat roofs - see {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|40|64}}) and arranged in layers as mentioned above - they agree with him on the strength of this latter point), though he is also open to the dome-shaped view based on tafsir sources rather than any internal evidence, while van Bladel relies mainly on pre-Quranic sources for his discussion of whether the Qur'anic heavens are a dome, tent or roof.


====Solid firmaments, supported by invisible pillars====
Further evidence that they do not mention is found in {{Quran|21|104}} and {{Quran|39|67}}, which state that the heavens will be rolled up/folded up come the day of judgement.


These seven heavens are solid objects; this can be shown in several ways. For starters, they stand as barriers that both protect (as does a roof) and contain.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|104}}|The Day when We shall roll up the heavens as a recorder rolleth up a written scroll. }}


The protective nature of this roof is shown in verses such as:
{{Quote|{{Quran|39|67}}|No just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to Him: On the Day of Judgment the whole of the earth will be but His handful, and the heavens will be rolled up in His right hand: Glory to Him! High is He above the Partners they attribute to Him!}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|And We have made the heavens as a canopy well guarded: yet do they turn away from the Signs which these things (point to)!}}


And the fact that they are solid is shown by references to pieces of the heavens falling and potentially injuring residents of the earth.
====Solidity of the firmaments, supported by invisible pillars====
 
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri notice that, as with other ancient cosmologies, the Qur'anic sky/heaven is a solid object.<ref>Ibid. p. 209</ref> Unlike with the heavenly pillars in the Bible, the Qur'anic heavens are raised up by invisible pillars (see also {{Quran|31|10}})<ref>Ibid. pp. 216 and 220</ref>
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}|It is Allah who erected the heavens without pillars that you [can] see; [...]}}
 
They note that various verses describe the heavens as a structure or edifice with no fissures, though fragments of it may fall on the earth.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|67|3}}|Who hath created seven heavens in harmony. Thou (Muhammad) canst see no fault in the Beneficent One's creation; then look again: Canst thou see any rifts?}}
 
And the fact that the sky/heaven is solid is shown by the concept of pieces falling and potentially injuring residents of the earth.


{{Quote|{{Quran|34|9}}|See they not what is before them and behind them, of the sky and the earth? If We wished, We could cause the earth to swallow them up, or cause a piece of the sky to fall upon them. Verily in this is a Sign for every devotee that turns to Allah (in repentance).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|34|9}}|See they not what is before them and behind them, of the sky and the earth? If We wished, We could cause the earth to swallow them up, or cause a piece of the sky to fall upon them. Verily in this is a Sign for every devotee that turns to Allah (in repentance).}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|6|35}}|If their spurning is hard on thy mind, yet if thou wert able to seek a tunnel in the ground or a ladder to the skies and bring them a sign,- (what good?).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|35}}|If their spurning is hard on thy mind, yet if thou wert able to seek a tunnel in the ground or a ladder to the skies and bring them a sign,- (what good?).}}


And finally, the heavens are apparently heavy enough to require physical supports of some sort. Contrary to some claims, the Qur'an acknowledges that such supports are required, but also explains that they are invisible (see similarly verse {{Quran|31|10}}.
It is a guarded roof (presumably a reference to shooting stars chasing devils in other verses):


{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}|Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see; is firmly established on the throne (of authority); He has subjected the sun and the moon (to his Law)! Each one runs (its course) for a term appointed. He doth regulate all affairs, explaining the signs in detail, that ye may believe with certainty in the meeting with your Lord.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|And We made the sky a protected ceiling, but they, from its signs, are turning away.}}


The authors here take it as obvious that the heavens require support of some kind. But their emphasis is on their invisibility, not their actual absence.
To further expound on the nature of the seven heavens, the [[hadith]] are helpful. Here we learn the distances between each heaven, as well as what is on the other side of the furthermost.
 
To further expound on the nature of the seven heavens, we need additional help from the [[hadith]]. Here we learn the distances between each heaven, as well as what is on the other side of the furthermost.


{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|2|475}}|Narrated Al-Abbas ibn AbdulMuttalib: I was sitting in al-Batha with a company among whom the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) was sitting, when a cloud passed above them. The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) looked at it and said: What do you call this?
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|2|475}}|Narrated Al-Abbas ibn AbdulMuttalib: I was sitting in al-Batha with a company among whom the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) was sitting, when a cloud passed above them. The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) looked at it and said: What do you call this?
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Each of the seven heavens is populated by multiple angels and a few other folks as well. These heavens are entered through doors in the solid domes, each with an angelic guard and each populated by a resident prophet. For example, immediately above the dome of the first heaven is where Muhammad met Adam, and discovered (in the absence of true geographic knowledge) the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The second heaven is the home of the Prophet Idris. Aaron is in the fourth heaven, Abraham the sixth, and Moses the seventh.
Each of the seven heavens is populated by multiple angels and a few other folks as well. These heavens are entered through doors in the solid domes, each with an angelic guard and each populated by a resident prophet. For example, immediately above the dome of the first heaven is where Muhammad met Adam, and discovered (in the absence of true geographic knowledge) the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The second heaven is the home of the Prophet Idris. Aaron is in the fourth heaven, Abraham the sixth, and Moses the seventh.


===The Celestial Objects===
 
Inside the nearest heaven (i.e. less than 73 years away) are the stars and (apparently) also the sun and [[moon]]. We can be certain that the stars are inside this closest heaven, as the Qur'an is quite explicit on this point.
===The Stars, the Sun, and the Moon===
 
The stars are inside the closest heaven, as the Qur'an is quite explicit on this point.


{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}|We have indeed decked the lower heaven with beauty (in) the stars.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}|We have indeed decked the lower heaven with beauty (in) the stars.}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|41|12}}|So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|41|12}}|So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge.}}


The idea that the stars might actually be objects on the scale of the sun, but much farther away was clearly missed by the authors of the Qur'an.
The sun and moon are a bit more ambiguous, as all we know is that they are in the heavens, and not explicitly inside the lowest of them.


===The Sun and the Moon===
{{Quote|{{Quran|71|16}}|And made the moon a light in their midst, and made the sun as a (Glorious) Lamp?}}


The sun and moon are a bit more ambiguous, as all we know is that they are in the “midst” of the heavens, and not explicitly inside the lowest of them.
Most likely, the course of the sun and moon is under the lowest heaven:


{{Quote|{{Quran|71|16}}|And made the moon a light in their midst, and made the sun as a (Glorious) Lamp?}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}|Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see; is firmly established on the throne (of authority); He has subjected the sun and the moon (to his Law)! Each one runs (its course) for a term appointed. He doth regulate all affairs, explaining the signs in detail, that ye may believe with certainty in the meeting with your Lord.}}


These two lights (along with the stars and planets) follow prescribed paths along the curved walls of the solid heavenly domes.
These two lights, as well as the night and day float in a circuitous course/sphere/hemisphere (a falak).


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|It is He Who created the Night and the Day, and the sun and the moon: all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|It is He Who created the Night and the Day, and the sun and the moon: all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).}}


And at the end of their daily paths across the sky, the sun (and presumably also the moon and stars) pass through the earth’s flat disk near the far Western edge using openings filled with water.
And at the end of their daily paths across the sky, the sun (and presumably also the moon and stars) pass through the earth’s flat surface near the far Western edge using openings filled with water.


{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}|Until, when he reached the setting of the sun, he found it set in a spring of murky water: Near it he found a People: We said: "O Zul-qarnain! (thou hast authority,) either to punish them, or to treat them with kindness."}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}|Until, when he reached the setting of the sun, he found it set in a spring of murky water: Near it he found a People: We said: "O Zul-qarnain! (thou hast authority,) either to punish them, or to treat them with kindness."}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|36|38}}|And the sun Runs its fixed course For a term (decreed). that is The Decree of (Allah) The Exalted in Might, The All-Knowing.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|38}}|And the sun Runs its fixed course For a term (decreed). that is The Decree of (Allah) The Exalted in Might, The All-Knowing.}}


With permission to rise received, the sun passes back through the earthly disk near its Eastern edge to commence the next day. While no “muddy pools” are specifically mentioned for the sunrise, the description of people living nearby the exit point mirrors the description of the [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One|place where the sun set]].
With permission to rise received, the sun passes back through the flat earth near its Eastern edge to commence the next day. While no “muddy pools” are specifically mentioned for the sunrise, the description of people living nearby the exit point mirrors the description of the [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One|place where the sun set]].


{{Quote|{{Quran|18|90}}|Until, when he came to the rising of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had provided no covering protection against the sun.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|90}}|Until, when he came to the rising of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had provided no covering protection against the sun.}}
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The “uniting” of the sun and the moon not only demonstrate a singular instance when they do “catch up” with each other, but also indicate that the authors of the Qur'an believed they were comparable in size. This is of course only an illusion of comparative distance.
The “uniting” of the sun and the moon not only demonstrate a singular instance when they do “catch up” with each other, but also indicate that the authors of the Qur'an believed they were comparable in size. This is of course only an illusion of comparative distance.


===Night and Day===
In a passage about events on the day of resurrection, the Qur'an implies that the sun and moon are of comparable size and distance. While such a perspective is intuitive for one in seventh century Arabia viewing the sun and moon with their unaided eye and observing eclipses, modern science has revealed that 64.3 million moons could fit in the sun.
 
The fact that the authors of the Qur'an did not realize that the sun and moon actually cause eclipses (as opposed to simply experiencing them) is similar to their failure to realize that the sun actually causes day and night. In the Qur'an, night is not simply the absence of day. Night and day are each specific, tangible creations of Allah, and they engage in a form of balanced conflict independent of the celestial bodies.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|27}}|Thou causest the night to pass into the day, and Thou causest the day to pass into the night.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|190}}|Behold! in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of night and day,- there are indeed Signs for men of understanding.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|13|3}}|He covereth the night with the day. Lo! herein verily are portents for people who take thought.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|75|8}}|And the moon darkens And the sun and the moon are joined,}}
 
Day and night are clearly entities independent from the sun, moon or any other celestial objects. Even when considered in the same verse, night and day are independent of the sun, with no recognition that the sun causes either of them.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|54}}|Lo! your Lord is Allah Who created the heavens and the earth in six Days, then mounted He the Throne. He covereth the night with the day, which is in haste to follow it, and hath made the sun and the moon and the stars subservient by His command. His verily is all creation and commandment. Blessed be Allah, the Lord of the Worlds!}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|14|33}}|And He hath made subject to you the sun and the moon, both diligently pursuing their courses; and the night and the day hath he (also) made subject to you.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|It is He Who created the Night and the Day, and the sun and the moon: all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|31|29}}|Hast thou not seen how Allah causeth the night to pass into the day and causeth the day to pass into the night, and hath subdued the sun and the moon (to do their work), each running unto an appointed term; and that Allah is Informed of what ye do?}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|39|5}}|He created the heavens and the earth in true (proportions): He makes the Night overlap the Day, and the Day overlap the Night: He has subjected the sun and the moon (to His law): Each one follows a course for a time appointed. Is not He the Exalted in Power - He Who forgives again and again?}}
 
So, if the sun does not cause day and night, what is its purpose other than merely being the brighter of the two major celestial lamps?
 
Well, it turns out that the purpose of these objects is primarily time and calendar keeping.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|96}}|He it is that cleaveth the day-break (from the dark): He makes the night for rest and tranquillity, and the sun and moon for the reckoning (of time): Such is the judgment and ordering of (Him), the Exalted in Power, the Omniscient.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|10|5}}|It is He Who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light (of beauty), and measured out stages for her; that ye might know the number of years and the count (of time). Nowise did Allah create this but in truth and righteousness. (Thus) doth He explain His Signs in detail, for those who understand.}}


===The Stars, Planets and Meteors===
===The Stars, Planets and Meteors===
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It is not obvious from the [[Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)|translations]] of the Qur'an that the authors of the Qur'an actually distinguished between stars and planets, as the same word is often translated to mean either. But as ancient peoples generally knew that planets were different from ordinary stars (they moved) it is a safe assumption that the earliest Muslims were equally aware.
It is not obvious from the [[Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)|translations]] of the Qur'an that the authors of the Qur'an actually distinguished between stars and planets, as the same word is often translated to mean either. But as ancient peoples generally knew that planets were different from ordinary stars (they moved) it is a safe assumption that the earliest Muslims were equally aware.


But the mistaken (if understandable) belief that stars are very small nearby objects is not merely reflected in the placement of them inside the nearest dome. As with most other ancient people, the authors of the Qur'an believed that meteors literally were “falling stars.” Yet with the unmistakable flavor of Arab martial creativity, they do not fall without purpose. [[Mistranslations_of_Islamic_Scripture_(English)#.2867:5.29_Shooting_stars|Verse 67:5]] tells us they are weapons against devils and jinn.
But the mistaken (if understandable) belief that stars are very small nearby objects is not merely reflected in the placement of them inside the nearest heaven. As with most other ancient people, the authors of the Qur'an believed that meteors literally were “falling stars.” [[Mistranslations_of_Islamic_Scripture_(English)#.2867:5.29_Shooting_stars|Verse 67:5]] tells us they are weapons against devils and jinn.


{{Quote|{{Quran|67|5}}|And we have, (from of old), adorned the lowest heaven with Lamps, and We have made such (Lamps) (as) missiles to drive away the Evil Ones, and have prepared for them the Penalty of the Blazing Fire.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|67|5}}|And we have, (from of old), adorned the lowest heaven with Lamps, and We have made such (Lamps) (as) missiles to drive away the Evil Ones, and have prepared for them the Penalty of the Blazing Fire.}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|72|8}}|And (the Jinn who had listened to the Quran said): We had sought the heaven but had found it filled with strong warders and meteors.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|72|8}}|And (the Jinn who had listened to the Quran said): We had sought the heaven but had found it filled with strong warders and meteors.}}


===The throne of Allah===
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that Allah seems to reside in the Qur'anic heaven, while his footstool (kursi) extends over the heavens and earth and his throne (arshi) is carried by angels ({{Quran|39|75}} and {{Quran|40|7}}).<ref>Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 208</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|67|16-17}}|Have ye taken security from Him Who is in the heaven that He will not cause the earth to swallow you when lo! it is convulsed? Or have ye taken security from Him Who is in the heaven that He will not let loose on you a hurricane? But ye shall know the manner of My warning.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|255}}|[...] His Throne doth extend over the heavens and the earth [...]}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|40|7}}|Those who bear the Throne, and all who are round about it, hymn the praises of their Lord [...]}}


===Where are Paradise and Hell?===
===Where are Paradise and Hell?===


Islamic cosmology takes a perfectly prosaic position in terms of Paradise and [[Hell]], and places them firmly within the cosmos that consists of the heavens and the earth. The description of Muhammad’s “night journey” shows each of the seven heavens already populated with the departed prophets in Paradise. This is consistent with the Qur'ans description of the size of Paradise.
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that for the Qur'an, there is almost no reference to what is beneath the earth, except as no more than a geographic location. There is no concept of an underworld, unlike Mesopotamian mythologies, as well as those of Egypt and Greece.<ref>Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 212</ref>
 
Later Islamic cosmology takes a perfectly prosaic position in terms of Paradise and [[Hell]], and places them firmly within the cosmos that consists of the heavens and the earth. This is discussed with many narrations in an article on the Islamqa.info website.<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/215011/where-is-paradise-and-where-is-hell Where is Paradise and where is Hell? ] - IslamQA.info</ref> The description of Muhammad’s “night journey” shows each of the seven heavens already populated with the departed prophets in Paradise. This is consistent with the Qur'anic description of the size of Paradise.


{{Quote|{{Quran|3|133}}|Be quick in the race for forgiveness from your Lord, and for a Garden whose width is that (of the whole) of the heavens and of the earth, prepared for the righteous,-}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|133}}|Be quick in the race for forgiveness from your Lord, and for a Garden whose width is that (of the whole) of the heavens and of the earth, prepared for the righteous,-}}
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If the heavens (to include the seventh and largest) are already populated with denizens of Paradise, the width of Paradise would be precisely that of heaven and earth.
If the heavens (to include the seventh and largest) are already populated with denizens of Paradise, the width of Paradise would be precisely that of heaven and earth.


And since Paradise is on the other side of the first heaven, it follows that Hell is below the surface of the first earth, filling the spaces beneath and between the seven earths. This is consistent with the descriptions of hell as being a completely enclosed place.
And since Paradise is on the other side of the first heaven, it might seem reasonable that Hell is at the level of the lowest earth, as appears in hadith. This is consistent with Qur'anic descriptions of hell as being a completely enclosed place.


{{Quote|{{Quran|7|41}}|For them there is Hell, as a couch (below) and folds and folds of covering above: such is Our requital of those who do wrong.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|41}}|For them there is Hell, as a couch (below) and folds and folds of covering above: such is Our requital of those who do wrong.}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|9|49}}|Among them is (many) a man who says: "Grant me exemption and draw me not into trial." Have they not fallen into trial already? and indeed Hell surrounds the Unbelievers (on all sides).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|49}}|Among them is (many) a man who says: "Grant me exemption and draw me not into trial." Have they not fallen into trial already? and indeed Hell surrounds the Unbelievers (on all sides).}}


Further, the direction of hell, when it is mentioned, is invariably “down.”
The direction of hell on the day of judgement or from the perspective of those in paradise at least, when it is mentioned, is invariably “down.”


{{Quote|{{Quran|52|13}}|That Day shall they be thrust down to the Fire of Hell, irresistibly.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|52|13}}|That Day shall they be thrust down to the Fire of Hell, irresistibly.}}
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