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===The Caliphate of Uthman===
===The Caliphate of Uthman===


Uthman ibn Affan, a son-in-law of Muhammad from the aristocratic Umayya clan,<ref>{{Tabari|15|p. 254}}.</ref> was elected the third caliph.<ref>{{Tabari|14|p. 95}}</ref> Aisha, who was now 30, had no ties of kinship or friendship with him. He began his reign by increasing the salaries of his officials<ref>{{Tabari|15|p. 7}}.</ref> and continued to make extravagant gifts to his personal friends.<ref>Restatement of the History of Islam.</ref> Uthman was well-liked in the early years, for “he treated them with leniency and was attached to them.”<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 161.</ref> As Medina prospered under his rule, “the fatness of men reached its height,” and “lax” people could be seen betting on flying pigeons and shooting with crossbows – until Uthman cut the wings of the pigeons and broke the bows.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 170.</ref> In 652 he standardised the Qur’an and burnt variant copies.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 170.</ref> He built a navy to challenge that of Byzantium.<ref>Restatement of Islamic History</ref> Above all, Uthman continued the policy of military conquest, making forays into Cyprus and Spain, and adding the remaining provinces of North Africa, Anatolia (modern Turkey), Persia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, most of modern Afghanistan and parts of western India (modern Pakistan) to the Islamic empire.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 159-161.</ref> None of this required help from Aisha.
Uthman ibn Affan, a son-in-law of Muhammad from the aristocratic Umayya clan,<ref>{{Tabari|15|p. 254}}.</ref> was elected the third caliph.<ref>{{Tabari|14|p. 95}}</ref> Aisha, who was now 30, had no ties of kinship or friendship with him. He began his reign by increasing the salaries of his officials<ref>{{Tabari|15|p. 7}}.</ref> and continued to make extravagant gifts to his personal friends.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 161.</ref> Uthman was well-liked in the early years, for “he treated them with leniency and was attached to them.”<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 161.</ref> As Medina prospered under his rule, “the fatness of men reached its height,” and “lax” people could be seen betting on flying pigeons and shooting with crossbows – until Uthman cut the wings of the pigeons and broke the bows.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 170.</ref> In 652 he standardised the Qur’an and burnt variant copies.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 170.</ref> He built a navy to challenge that of Byzantium.<ref>Restatement of Islamic History</ref> Above all, Uthman continued the policy of military conquest, making forays into Cyprus and Spain, and adding the remaining provinces of North Africa, Anatolia (modern Turkey), Persia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, most of modern Afghanistan and parts of western India (modern Pakistan) to the Islamic empire.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 159-161.</ref> None of this required help from Aisha.


Aisha still needed permission to leave Medina. Uthman eventually agreed to escort Muhammad's widows on a second ''Hajj'', and once again, “we were kept well out of sight.”<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:147.</ref> It is not recorded that Aisha left Medina again until 656. Uthman expanded the mosque at Medina to a size of about 67m x 71m by buying up most of the adjoining buildings, though not the houses of Muhammad’s widows. Aisha therefore exchanged her old neighbours for carved stone walls, stone pillars and a teakwood roof.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 159-160.</ref>  
Aisha still needed permission to leave Medina. Uthman eventually agreed to escort Muhammad's widows on a second ''Hajj'', and once again, “we were kept well out of sight.”<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:147.</ref> It is not recorded that Aisha left Medina again until 656. Uthman expanded the mosque at Medina to a size of about 67m x 71m by buying up most of the adjoining buildings, though not the houses of Muhammad’s widows. Aisha therefore exchanged her old neighbours for carved stone walls, stone pillars and a teakwood roof.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 159-160.</ref>  
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Aisha raised an army of 30,000,<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 121}}.</ref> which Talha and Al-Zubayr warned her was still not enough to tackle the rebels in Medina.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 43}}.</ref> Instead they marched out to Syria, where they defeated the Governor of Basra and took over the city.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 69-70, 76}}; Muir (1924), pp. 243-244.</ref> They put to death everyone who was implicated in the assassination of Uthman.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 73}}.</ref> But they were not powerful enough to do anything more towards either their ostensible goal of avenging Uthman (since the majority of the rebels were still in Medina) or their real goal of deposing Ali. After gathering reinforcements<ref>Muir (1924), pp. 246-247.</ref> Ali entered Basra with a professional army of 20,000.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 121}}.</ref> At first each side held up copies of the Qur’an, urging the other not to fight.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 122, 129, 130, 152}}.</ref> Aisha’s side cursed Uthman’s killers, and Ali’s side started cursing them too.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 132}}.</ref> If the conflict really had been about avenging Uthman, negotiations might well have averted the battle.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 121-122}}.</ref> But on 7 December 656 hostilities erupted. Aisha’s warriors killed Ali’s messenger-boy, and Ali responded, “Battle is now justified, so fight them!”<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 126-127}}.</ref> So battle commenced.
Aisha raised an army of 30,000,<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 121}}.</ref> which Talha and Al-Zubayr warned her was still not enough to tackle the rebels in Medina.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 43}}.</ref> Instead they marched out to Syria, where they defeated the Governor of Basra and took over the city.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 69-70, 76}}; Muir (1924), pp. 243-244.</ref> They put to death everyone who was implicated in the assassination of Uthman.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 73}}.</ref> But they were not powerful enough to do anything more towards either their ostensible goal of avenging Uthman (since the majority of the rebels were still in Medina) or their real goal of deposing Ali. After gathering reinforcements<ref>Muir (1924), pp. 246-247.</ref> Ali entered Basra with a professional army of 20,000.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 121}}.</ref> At first each side held up copies of the Qur’an, urging the other not to fight.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 122, 129, 130, 152}}.</ref> Aisha’s side cursed Uthman’s killers, and Ali’s side started cursing them too.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 132}}.</ref> If the conflict really had been about avenging Uthman, negotiations might well have averted the battle.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 121-122}}.</ref> But on 7 December 656 hostilities erupted. Aisha’s warriors killed Ali’s messenger-boy, and Ali responded, “Battle is now justified, so fight them!”<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 126-127}}.</ref> So battle commenced.


Aisha directed her troops from an armour-plated red ''howdah'' on a red camel named Al-Askar (“soldier”).<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 124, 156}}.</ref> Talha was one of the first to be killed, by an arrow to his knee.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 111, 127, 150}}.</ref> However, since most of the warriors were wearing armour, arrows killed inefficiently, so both sides concentrated on sword-work and cutting off one another’s limbs. It was said that there was never a battle “in which there were more cut-off arms and legs whose owners were not known than this one.”<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 135}}.</ref> “Never did I see a day when more men hastened to fight with only a left hand because they had lost their right.”<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 171}}.</ref> Al-Zubayr lost the desire to fight and left the battle, but he was followed and killed while at his prayers.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 111-112, 116, 126, 158-159}}. He said that Ali had talked him out of it on the grounds that they were cousins, but his son accused him of fearing Ali’s army. Neither motive seems very plausible, especially as Al-Zubayr made no effort to dissuade his allies from fighting; but if he had some other reason, it is not known to history.</ref> The battle was long and bloody, and 13,000 were slain.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 177. {{Tabari|16|pp. 164}} records one tradition that it was only 10,000 and another that it was 10,000 Syrians and 5,000 Mesopotamians.</ref> After losing both Talha and Al-Zubayr, Aisha’s men felt obliged to protect the Mother of the Faithful by keeping close to her camel. One by one, forty men (some say seventy<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 153}}.</ref>) took turns to hold its nose-rope,<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 138-139}}.</ref> chanting, “''Fear not, O Aisha our Mother! All your sons are heroes brave; none is fearful or cowardly. We will not flee until our skulls tumble, until boiling red blood pours from them! Fear not, O Aisha, wife of the Blessed!''”<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 138, 149}}.</ref> None of Ali’s men who failed to wound the camel made a second attack.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 153}}.</ref> Al-Askar held steady amid the battle until Aisha could no longer hear the chanting because Ali’s forces had cut down every man.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 136}}.</ref> By this time both camel and ''howdah'' “looked like a giant hedgehog” because they were so stuck with arrows.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 156}}.</ref> Finally someone managed to cut off Al-Askar’s right leg, whereupon “it threw itself down on its side and growled,” and the ''howdah'' fell to the ground. Ali’s men cut the ''howdah'' from the dying camel’s girth, and Aisha’s men fled.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 149-150}}.</ref>
Aisha directed her troops from an armour-plated red ''howdah'' on a red camel named Al-Askar (“soldier”).<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 124, 156}}.</ref> Talha was one of the first to be killed, by an arrow to his knee.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 111, 127, 150}}.</ref> However, since most of the warriors were wearing armour, arrows killed inefficiently, so both sides concentrated on sword-work and cutting off one another’s limbs. It was said that there was never a battle “in which there were more cut-off arms and legs whose owners were not known than this one.”<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 135}}.</ref> “Never did I see a day when more men hastened to fight with only a left hand because they had lost their right.”<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 171}}.</ref> Al-Zubayr lost the desire to fight and left the battle, but he was followed and killed while at his prayers.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 111-112, 116, 126, 158-159}}. He said that Ali had talked him out of it on the grounds that they were cousins, but his son accused him of fearing Ali’s army. Neither motive seems very plausible, especially as Al-Zubayr made no effort to dissuade his allies from fighting; but if he had some other reason, it is not known to history.</ref> The battle was long and bloody, and 13,000 were slain.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 177. {{Tabari|16|pp. 164}} records one tradition that it was only 10,000 and another that it was 10,000 Syrians and 5,000 Mesopotamians.</ref> After losing both Talha and Al-Zubayr, Aisha’s men felt obliged to protect the Mother of the Faithful by keeping close to her camel. One by one, forty men (some say seventy<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 153}}.</ref>) took turns to hold its nose-rope,<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 138-139}}.</ref> chanting, “''Fear not, O Aisha our Mother! All your sons are heroes brave; none is fearful or cowardly. We will not flee until our skulls tumble, until boiling red blood pours from them! Fear not, O Aisha, wife of the Blessed!''”<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 138, 149}}.</ref> None of Ali’s men who failed to wound the camel made a second attack.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 153}}.</ref> Al-Askar held steady amid the battle until Aisha could no longer hear the chanting because Ali’s forces had cut down every man.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 136}}.</ref> By this time both camel and ''howdah'' “looked like a giant hedgehog” because they were so stuck with arrows.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 156}}.</ref> Finally someone managed to cut off Al-Askar’s right leg, whereupon “it threw itself down on its side and growled,” and the ''howdah'' fell to the ground. Ali’s men cut it from the dying camel’s girth, and Aisha’s men fled.<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 149-150}}.</ref>


Aisha, at Ali’s command, was extracted from her ''howdah'' by her own brother Muhammad and brought to Ali.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 157}}. Muhammad was Ali’s stepson; he had been very young when Abu Bakr died and his mother, Asma bint Umays, remarried to Ali (Bewley/Saad 8:197-198).</ref> It would have been foolish to subject a Mother of the Faithful to judicial execution, so Ali staged a public show of reconciliation. He addressed Aisha as “Mother,” and they each said to the other: “May Allah forgive us and you!”<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 158}}.</ref> Then he gave her a new camel and plenty of food and servants, and they took public leave of one another, assuring their audience that there was no further quarrel between them. Ali sent her to Mecca, where she remained for several months until the next ''Hajj'', as if to demonstrate that she was free to go where she wished. But then she returned to Medina,<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 167, 170}}.</ref> where Ali kept her under house-arrest in the mosque complex for as long as he lived. She was to play no further part in public affairs.<ref>Muir (1924) p. 251.</ref>
Aisha, at Ali’s command, was extracted from her ''howdah'' by her own brother Muhammad and brought to Ali.<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 157}}. Muhammad was Ali’s stepson; he had been very young when Abu Bakr died and his mother, Asma bint Umays, remarried to Ali (Bewley/Saad 8:197-198).</ref> It would have been foolish to subject a Mother of the Faithful to judicial execution, so Ali staged a public show of reconciliation. He addressed Aisha as “Mother,” and they each said to the other: “May Allah forgive us and you!”<ref>{{Tabari|16|p. 158}}.</ref> Then he gave her a new camel, food and servants for her journey, and they took public leave of one another, assuring their audience that there was no further quarrel between them. Ali sent her to Mecca, where she remained for several months until the next ''Hajj'', as if to demonstrate that she was free to go where she wished. But then she returned to Medina,<ref>{{Tabari|16|pp. 167, 170}}.</ref> where Ali kept her under house-arrest in the mosque complex for as long as he lived. She was to play no further part in public affairs.<ref>Muir (1924) p. 251.</ref>


Muslims have traditionally perceived the Battle of the Camel, the first war where Muslim fought Muslim, as “proof” that “woman was not created to poke her nose into politics.”<ref>[http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_401_450/female_leadership_in_islam.htm/ Sa’id Al-Afghani], cited in Shehabuddin, S. “Female Leadership in Islam” in ''Islamic Research Foundation International, Inc.''</ref> In fact Aisha was no more aggressive than her male counterparts, and the war was no more disastrous than the hundreds of wars, including Muslim-against-Muslim wars, that male Muslims have fought ever since. The real problem was not that Aisha was a woman but that her Islamic world-view had taught her to solve problems by authoritarianism, assassination and open war. Aisha regretted the Battle of the Camel; she more than once declared, “I wish I had been a leaf on a tree! I wish I had been a stone! I wish I had been a clod of earth! By Allah, I wish that Allah had not created me as anything at all!”<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:52.</ref> Sunni Muslims understand these expressions of regret as proof that Aisha “sincerely repented and wasn't against the household [of Ali] after that.”<ref>[http://www.yanabi.com/index.php?/topic/426447-mothers-of-the-believers-hazrath-aisha-siddiqa-ra/page__st__80/ “Mothers Of The Believers Hazrath Aisha Siddiqa (r.a)” in ''Yanabi.com - reviving the spirit of Islam''.]</ref> However, it is not completely clear whether she repented starting the war or whether her real regret was only that she had lost it.
Muslims have traditionally perceived the Battle of the Camel, the first war where Muslim fought Muslim, as “proof” that “woman was not created to poke her nose into politics.”<ref>[http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_401_450/female_leadership_in_islam.htm/ Sa’id Al-Afghani], cited in Shehabuddin, S. “Female Leadership in Islam” in ''Islamic Research Foundation International, Inc.''</ref> In fact Aisha was no more aggressive than her male counterparts, and the war was no more disastrous than the hundreds of wars, including Muslim-against-Muslim wars, that male Muslims have fought ever since. The real problem was not that Aisha was a woman but that her Islamic world-view had taught her to solve problems by authoritarianism, assassination and open war. Aisha regretted the Battle of the Camel; she more than once declared, “I wish I had been a leaf on a tree! I wish I had been a stone! I wish I had been a clod of earth! By Allah, I wish that Allah had not created me as anything at all!”<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:52.</ref> Sunni Muslims understand these expressions of regret as proof that Aisha “sincerely repented and wasn't against the household [of Ali] after that.”<ref>[http://www.yanabi.com/index.php?/topic/426447-mothers-of-the-believers-hazrath-aisha-siddiqa-ra/page__st__80/ “Mothers Of The Believers Hazrath Aisha Siddiqa (r.a)” in ''Yanabi.com - reviving the spirit of Islam''.]</ref> However, it is not completely clear whether she repented starting the war or whether her real regret was only that she had lost it.

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