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===Human Flight===
===Human Flight===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The first mention of man in flight was by Roger Bacon, who drew a flying apparatus. Leonardo da Vinci also conceived of airborne transport and drew several prototypes.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented, constructed and tested a flying machine in the 800's A.D. Roger Bacon learned of flying machines from Arabic references to Ibn Firnas' machine. The latter's invention antedates Bacon by 500 years and Da Vinci by some 700 years.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram">K. Ajram - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/sciencehistory.htm|2=2011-04-18}} The Miracle of Islamic Science] - p. 200. ISBN 0911119434</ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The first mention of man in flight was by Roger Bacon, who drew a flying apparatus. Leonardo da Vinci also conceived of airborne transport and drew several prototypes.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented, constructed and tested a flying machine in the 800's A.D. Roger Bacon learned of flying machines from Arabic references to Ibn Firnas' machine. The latter's invention antedates Bacon by 500 years and Da Vinci by some 700 years.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram">K. Ajram - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/sciencehistory.htm|2=2011-04-18}} The Miracle of Islamic Science] - p. 200. ISBN 0911119434</ref>}}


In [[China]] 202 BC,  General Han Xin, under Emperor Liu Bang, made a man-carrying kite for military purposes. This is the first recorded evidence of human flight.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20070816142101/http://en.weifangkite.net/|2=2011-04-18}} Origin of kite] - Weifang Kite, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
In [[China]] 202 BC,  General Han Xin, under Emperor Liu Bang, made a man-carrying kite for military purposes. This is the first recorded evidence of human flight.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20070816142101/http://en.weifangkite.net/|2=2011-04-18}} Origin of kite] - Weifang Kite, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
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===Mechanical Clocks===
===Mechanical Clocks===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Until the 14th century, the only type of clock available was the water clock. In 1335, a large mechanical clock was erected in Milan, Italy. This was possibly the first weight-driven clock.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' A variety of mechanical clocks were produced by Spanish Muslim engineers, both large and small, and this knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on mechanics. These clocks were weight-driven. Designs and illustrations of epi-cyclic and segmental gears were provided. One such clock included a mercury escapement. The latter type was directly copied by Europeans during the 15th century. In addition, during the 9th century, Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain, according to Will Durant, invented a watch-like device which kept accurate time. The Muslims also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Until the 14th century, the only type of clock available was the water clock. In 1335, a large mechanical clock was erected in Milan, Italy. This was possibly the first weight-driven clock.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' A variety of mechanical clocks were produced by Spanish Muslim engineers, both large and small, and this knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on mechanics. These clocks were weight-driven. Designs and illustrations of epi-cyclic and segmental gears were provided. One such clock included a mercury escapement. The latter type was directly copied by Europeans during the 15th century. In addition, during the 9th century, Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain, according to Will Durant, invented a watch-like device which kept accurate time. The Muslims also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The first fully-mechanical clock (water-driven) was built by Liang Ling-Can, in China in 724 AD.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.thocp.net/timeline/0469.htm|2=2011-04-18}} The Prehistoric Era: 469 BC - 1300 AD] - The History of Computing Project, accessed April 18, 2011</ref><ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20030908211617/http://www.labyrinth.net.au/~saul/history/time.html|2=2011-04-18}} Time Bandit…a brief history of time] - Labyrinth, accessed April 18, 2011</ref> Some people think that the first weight-driven clock was invented by Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona in the 9<sup>th</sup> century.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20051124113730/http://www.bartleby.com/65/cl/clock.html|2=2011-04-18}} Clock] - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.  2001-05.</ref>
The first fully-mechanical clock (water-driven) was built by Liang Ling-Can, in China in 724 AD.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.thocp.net/timeline/0469.htm|2=2011-04-18}} The Prehistoric Era: 469 BC - 1300 AD] - The History of Computing Project, accessed April 18, 2011</ref><ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20030908211617/http://www.labyrinth.net.au/~saul/history/time.html|2=2011-04-18}} Time Bandit…a brief history of time] - Labyrinth, accessed April 18, 2011</ref> Some people think that the first weight-driven clock was invented by Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona in the 9<sup>th</sup> century.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20051124113730/http://www.bartleby.com/65/cl/clock.html|2=2011-04-18}} Clock] - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.  2001-05.</ref>
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===Pendulum===
===Pendulum===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' In the 17th century, the pendulum was developed by Galileo during his teenage years. He noticed a chandelier swaying as it was being blown by the wind. As a result, he went home and invented the pendulum.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' The pendulum was discovered by Ibn Yunus al-Masri during the 10th century, who was the first to study and document its oscillatory motion. Its value for use in clocks was introduced by Muslim physicists during the 15th century.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' In the 17th century, the pendulum was developed by Galileo during his teenage years. He noticed a chandelier swaying as it was being blown by the wind. As a result, he went home and invented the pendulum.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' The pendulum was discovered by Ibn Yunus al-Masri during the 10th century, who was the first to study and document its oscillatory motion. Its value for use in clocks was introduced by Muslim physicists during the 15th century.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The Romans were aware of pendulums as they used pendulums for scrying, and their methods were detailed in the writings of Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.paralumun.com/pendulum.htm|2=2011-04-18}} Pendulum Scrying] - Paralumun, New Age Village, accessed April 18, 2011</ref> The first authenticated pendulum clock was built by Christian Huygens in 1657 although Galileo had thought about it around 1602. Some people think that Gerbert of Aurillac (c.945 - 1003 AD) who later became Pope Sylvester II invented the pendulum clock around 996 AD.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/pope0140.htm|2=2011-04-18}} Pope Silvester II] - Saint Joseph Software, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
The Romans were aware of pendulums as they used pendulums for scrying, and their methods were detailed in the writings of Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.paralumun.com/pendulum.htm|2=2011-04-18}} Pendulum Scrying] - Paralumun, New Age Village, accessed April 18, 2011</ref> The first authenticated pendulum clock was built by Christian Huygens in 1657 although Galileo had thought about it around 1602. Some people think that Gerbert of Aurillac (c.945 - 1003 AD) who later became Pope Sylvester II invented the pendulum clock around 996 AD.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/pope0140.htm|2=2011-04-18}} Pope Silvester II] - Saint Joseph Software, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
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===Movable Type===
===Movable Type===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Movable type and the printing press was invented in the West by Johannes Gutenberg of Germany during the 15th century.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' In 1454, Gutenberg developed the most sophisticated printing press of the Middle Ages. However, movable brass type was in use in Islamic Spain 100 years prior, and that is where the West's first printing devices were made.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Movable type and the printing press was invented in the West by Johannes Gutenberg of Germany during the 15th century.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' In 1454, Gutenberg developed the most sophisticated printing press of the Middle Ages. However, movable brass type was in use in Islamic Spain 100 years prior, and that is where the West's first printing devices were made.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The Chinese invented movable type printing. In 1041, a Chinese named, Pi-Sheng, developed type characters from hardened clay but was not totally successful. In the early 1200, Korea invented type characters cast from metal (bronze). The oldest extant metal type printing is ‘Baegun Hwasang Chorok Buljo jikji simche yojeol,’ abbreviated to ‘Jikji,’ which was published in 1377 Cheungju, Korea and is currently kept in the National Library of France.<ref>Memory of the World - [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fci%2Fen%2Fev.php-URL_ID%3D22954%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html&date=2011-04-18 <!-- http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=22954&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html -->Baegun hwasang chorok buljo jikji simche yojeol (vol.II)] - UNESCO, ID No. 22954</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jikji&oldid=409958875 Jikji] - Wikipedia, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
The Chinese invented movable type printing. In 1041, a Chinese named, Pi-Sheng, developed type characters from hardened clay but was not totally successful. In the early 1200, Korea invented type characters cast from metal (bronze). The oldest extant metal type printing is ‘Baegun Hwasang Chorok Buljo jikji simche yojeol,’ abbreviated to ‘Jikji,’ which was published in 1377 Cheungju, Korea and is currently kept in the National Library of France.<ref>Memory of the World - [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fci%2Fen%2Fev.php-URL_ID%3D22954%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html&date=2011-04-18 <!-- http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=22954&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html -->Baegun hwasang chorok buljo jikji simche yojeol (vol.II)] - UNESCO, ID No. 22954</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jikji&oldid=409958875 Jikji] - Wikipedia, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
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===Optics===
===Optics===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Isaac Newton's 17th century study of lenses, light and prisms forms the foundation of the modern science of optics.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' In the 1lth century al-Haytham determined virtually everything that Newton advanced regarding optics centuries prior and is regarded by numerous authorities as the "founder of optics. " There is little doubt that Newton was influenced by him. Al-Haytham was the most quoted physicist of the Middle Ages. His works were utilized and quoted by a greater number of European scholars during the 16th and 17th centuries than those of Newton and Galileo combined.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Isaac Newton's 17th century study of lenses, light and prisms forms the foundation of the modern science of optics.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' In the 1lth century al-Haytham determined virtually everything that Newton advanced regarding optics centuries prior and is regarded by numerous authorities as the "founder of optics. " There is little doubt that Newton was influenced by him. Al-Haytham was the most quoted physicist of the Middle Ages. His works were utilized and quoted by a greater number of European scholars during the 16th and 17th centuries than those of Newton and Galileo combined.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Great as he was, al-Haytham (aka Alhazen) also built on the works of Ancient Greek scientists.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ece.umd.edu/~taylor/optics1.htm|2=2011-04-18}} Optics Highlights I. Ancient History] - University of Maryland, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
Great as he was, al-Haytham (aka Alhazen) also built on the works of Ancient Greek scientists.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ece.umd.edu/~taylor/optics1.htm|2=2011-04-18}} Optics Highlights I. Ancient History] - University of Maryland, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
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===Light Rays===
===Light Rays===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, discovered that white light consists of various rays of colored light.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' This discovery was made in its entirety by al-Haytham (1lth century) and Kamal ad-Din (14th century). Newton did make original discoveries, but this was not one of them.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, discovered that white light consists of various rays of colored light.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' This discovery was made in its entirety by al-Haytham (1lth century) and Kamal ad-Din (14th century). Newton did make original discoveries, but this was not one of them.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Chalk one up for the apologists. Alhazen was a great scientist. Some people think he may have had to fake madness to avoid an impossible task set by the [[Caliph]] al-Hakim and used his self-imposed exile to pursue his interests in optics.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~jimw/jingoro/sfbc4.html|2=2011-04-18}} Arab Scientist Alhazen 'Discovers' the Rainbow] - UGCS, California Institute of Technology, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
Chalk one up for the apologists. Alhazen was a great scientist. Some people think he may have had to fake madness to avoid an impossible task set by the [[Caliph]] al-Hakim and used his self-imposed exile to pursue his interests in optics.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~jimw/jingoro/sfbc4.html|2=2011-04-18}} Arab Scientist Alhazen 'Discovers' the Rainbow] - UGCS, California Institute of Technology, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
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===Nature of Matter===
===Nature of Matter===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The concept of the finite nature of matter was first introduced by Antione Lavoisier during the 18th century. He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if salt is dissolved in water or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' The principles of this discovery were elaborated centuries before by Islamic Persia's great scholar, al-Biruni (d. 1050). Lavoisier was a disciple of the Muslim chemists and physicists and referred to their books frequently.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The concept of the finite nature of matter was first introduced by Antione Lavoisier during the 18th century. He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if salt is dissolved in water or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' The principles of this discovery were elaborated centuries before by Islamic Persia's great scholar, al-Biruni (d. 1050). Lavoisier was a disciple of the Muslim chemists and physicists and referred to their books frequently.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Great as al-Biruni was, he also stood on the shoulders of previous generations of scientists. In fact, he was a great translator of Sanskrit scientific texts, including [[India|Indian]] astronomy and mathematics which were of particular interest to him. Al-Biruni was amazingly well read, having knowledge of Sanskrit literature on topics such as astrology, astronomy, chronology, geography, grammar, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, religion, and weights and measures.<ref>John J O'Connor and Edmund F Robertson - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Biruni.html|2=2011-04-18}} Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni] - University of St Andrews, Scotland, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
Great as al-Biruni was, he also stood on the shoulders of previous generations of scientists. In fact, he was a great translator of Sanskrit scientific texts, including [[India|Indian]] astronomy and mathematics which were of particular interest to him. Al-Biruni was amazingly well read, having knowledge of Sanskrit literature on topics such as astrology, astronomy, chronology, geography, grammar, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, religion, and weights and measures.<ref>John J O'Connor and Edmund F Robertson - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Biruni.html|2=2011-04-18}} Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni] - University of St Andrews, Scotland, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
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===Trigonometry===
===Trigonometry===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The Greeks were the developers of trigonometry.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Trigonometry remained largely a theoretical science among the Greeks. It was developed to a level of modern perfection by Muslim scholars, although the weight of the credit must be given to al-Battani. The words describing the basic functions of this science, sine, cosine and tangent, are all derived from Arabic terms. Thus, original contributions by the Greeks in trigonometry were minimal.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The Greeks were the developers of trigonometry.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Trigonometry remained largely a theoretical science among the Greeks. It was developed to a level of modern perfection by Muslim scholars, although the weight of the credit must be given to al-Battani. The words describing the basic functions of this science, sine, cosine and tangent, are all derived from Arabic terms. Thus, original contributions by the Greeks in trigonometry were minimal.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The Muslim contribution to trigonometry is but a link in the chain of discoveries, beginning with the [[Egypt|Egyptians]] and Babylonians, to the [[Greece|Greeks]] and Indians, then the Muslims, before the Western mathematicians took over the study.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Mathematics/Trigonometry/history/History%20.html|2=2013-01-09}} Themes > Science > Mathematics > Trigonometry > History] - Cartage, accessed January 9, 2013</ref> To claim that the Muslims developed it to a “level of modern perfection” is emotive and non-factual. In fact, the word ‘sine’ has Hindu roots and was merely a transliteration by the Arabs.  
The Muslim contribution to trigonometry is but a link in the chain of discoveries, beginning with the [[Egypt|Egyptians]] and Babylonians, to the [[Greece|Greeks]] and Indians, then the Muslims, before the Western mathematicians took over the study.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Mathematics/Trigonometry/history/History%20.html|2=2013-01-09}} Themes > Science > Mathematics > Trigonometry > History] - Cartage, accessed January 9, 2013</ref> To claim that the Muslims developed it to a “level of modern perfection” is emotive and non-factual. In fact, the word ‘sine’ has Hindu roots and was merely a transliteration by the Arabs.  
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===Decimal Fractions===
===Decimal Fractions===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The use of decimal fractions in mathematics was first developed by a Dutchman, Simon Stevin, in 1589. He helped advance the mathematical sciences by replacing the cumbersome fractions, for instance, 1/2, with decimal fractions, for example, 0.5.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim mathematicians were the first to utilize decimals instead of fractions on a large scale. Al-Kashi's book, Key to Arithmetic, was written at the beginning of the 15th century and was the stimulus for the systematic application of decimals to whole numbers and fractions thereof. It is highly probably that Stevin imported the idea to Europe from al-Kashi's work.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The use of decimal fractions in mathematics was first developed by a Dutchman, Simon Stevin, in 1589. He helped advance the mathematical sciences by replacing the cumbersome fractions, for instance, 1/2, with decimal fractions, for example, 0.5.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim mathematicians were the first to utilize decimals instead of fractions on a large scale. Al-Kashi's book, Key to Arithmetic, was written at the beginning of the 15th century and was the stimulus for the systematic application of decimals to whole numbers and fractions thereof. It is highly probably that Stevin imported the idea to Europe from al-Kashi's work.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Fractions were invented by the Babylonians. Although Muslim mathematicians had derived a theoretical basis for using decimal fractions, it was a Chinese named Yang Hui who in 1261 AD first used decimal fractions in the modern form. In contrast al-Kashi wrote the value of pi in decimal form more than a century later.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20041213185615/http://members.aol.com/jeff570/fractions.html|2=2013-01-10}} Earliest Uses of Symbols for Fractions] - History of Mathematics, March 4, 2004</ref>
Fractions were invented by the Babylonians. Although Muslim mathematicians had derived a theoretical basis for using decimal fractions, it was a Chinese named Yang Hui who in 1261 AD first used decimal fractions in the modern form. In contrast al-Kashi wrote the value of pi in decimal form more than a century later.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20041213185615/http://members.aol.com/jeff570/fractions.html|2=2013-01-10}} Earliest Uses of Symbols for Fractions] - History of Mathematics, March 4, 2004</ref>
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===Algebra===
===Algebra===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The first man to utilize algebraic symbols was the French mathematician, Francois Vieta. In 1591, he wrote an algebra book describing equations with letters such as the now familiar x and y's. Asimov says that this discovery had an impact similar to the progression from Roman numerals to Arabic numbers.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim mathematicians, the inventors of algebra, introduced the concept of using letters for unknown variables in equations as early as the 9th century A.D. Through this system, they solved a variety of complex equations, including quadratic and cubic equations. They used symbols to develop and perfect the binomial theorem.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The first man to utilize algebraic symbols was the French mathematician, Francois Vieta. In 1591, he wrote an algebra book describing equations with letters such as the now familiar x and y's. Asimov says that this discovery had an impact similar to the progression from Roman numerals to Arabic numbers.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim mathematicians, the inventors of algebra, introduced the concept of using letters for unknown variables in equations as early as the 9th century A.D. Through this system, they solved a variety of complex equations, including quadratic and cubic equations. They used symbols to develop and perfect the binomial theorem.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The Indians were the inventors of algebra. The earliest text on algebra is the Bakhshali Manuscript. Western scholars estimate its date as about 3<sup>rd</sup> or 4<sup>th</sup> century AD. It is devoted mostly to arithmetic and algebra, with a few problems on geometry and mensuration. Brahmagupta (598 - 665 AD) provided the rules for solving quadratic equations.
The Indians were the inventors of algebra. The earliest text on algebra is the Bakhshali Manuscript. Western scholars estimate its date as about 3<sup>rd</sup> or 4<sup>th</sup> century AD. It is devoted mostly to arithmetic and algebra, with a few problems on geometry and mensuration. Brahmagupta (598 - 665 AD) provided the rules for solving quadratic equations.
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===Cubic Equations===
===Cubic Equations===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The difficult cubic equations (x to the third power) remained unsolved until the 16th century when Niccolo Tartaglia, an Italian mathematician, solved them.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Cubic equations as well as numerous equations of even higher degrees were solved with ease by Muslim mathematicians as early as the 10th century.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The difficult cubic equations (x to the third power) remained unsolved until the 16th century when Niccolo Tartaglia, an Italian mathematician, solved them.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Cubic equations as well as numerous equations of even higher degrees were solved with ease by Muslim mathematicians as early as the 10th century.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The apologetic position is unexampled and unreferenced, and therefore cannot be assessed. Omar Khayyam is credited with solving the General Cubic Equations by Geometric Constructions and Conic Sections but he was a freethinking agnostic, not a Muslim.<ref>Sadegh Hedayat, the greatest Persian novelist and short-story writer of the twentieth century was at pains to point out that Khayyám from "his youth to his death remained a materialist, pessimist, agnostic". "Khayyam looked at all religions questions with a skeptical eye", continues Hedayat, "and hated the fanaticism, narrow-mindedness, and the spirit of vengeance of the mullas, the so-called religious scholars".</ref><ref> "''....A hostile orthodox account of him, written in the thirteenth century, represents him as "versed in all the wisdom of the Greeks," and as wont to insist on the necessity of studying science on Greek lines. Of his prose works, two, which were stand authority, dealt respectively with precious stones and climatology. Beyond question the poet-astronomer was undevout; and his astronomy doubtless helped to make him so. One contemporary writes: "I did not observe that he had any great belief in astrological predictions; nor have I seen or heard of any of the great (scientists) who had such belief." In point of fact he was not, any more than Abu';-Ala, a convinced atheist, but he had no sympathy with popular religion. "He gave his adherence to no religious sect. Agnosticism, not faith, is the keynote of his works." Among the sects he saw everywhere strife and hatred in which he could have no part....''" - Robertson (1914). "Freethought under Islam". A Short History of Freethough, Ancient and Modern Volume I (Elibron Classics). Watts & Co., London. pp. 263. ISBN 0543851907. </ref>
The apologetic position is unexampled and unreferenced, and therefore cannot be assessed. Omar Khayyam is credited with solving the General Cubic Equations by Geometric Constructions and Conic Sections but he was a freethinking agnostic, not a Muslim.<ref>Sadegh Hedayat, the greatest Persian novelist and short-story writer of the twentieth century was at pains to point out that Khayyám from "his youth to his death remained a materialist, pessimist, agnostic". "Khayyam looked at all religions questions with a skeptical eye", continues Hedayat, "and hated the fanaticism, narrow-mindedness, and the spirit of vengeance of the mullas, the so-called religious scholars".</ref><ref> "''....A hostile orthodox account of him, written in the thirteenth century, represents him as "versed in all the wisdom of the Greeks," and as wont to insist on the necessity of studying science on Greek lines. Of his prose works, two, which were stand authority, dealt respectively with precious stones and climatology. Beyond question the poet-astronomer was undevout; and his astronomy doubtless helped to make him so. One contemporary writes: "I did not observe that he had any great belief in astrological predictions; nor have I seen or heard of any of the great (scientists) who had such belief." In point of fact he was not, any more than Abu';-Ala, a convinced atheist, but he had no sympathy with popular religion. "He gave his adherence to no religious sect. Agnosticism, not faith, is the keynote of his works." Among the sects he saw everywhere strife and hatred in which he could have no part....''" - Robertson (1914). "Freethought under Islam". A Short History of Freethough, Ancient and Modern Volume I (Elibron Classics). Watts & Co., London. pp. 263. ISBN 0543851907. </ref>
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===Negative Numbers===
===Negative Numbers===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The concept that numbers could be less than zero, that is negative numbers, was unknown until 1545 when Geronimo Cardano introduced the idea.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim mathematicians introduced negative numbers for use in a variety of arithmetic functions at least 400 years prior to Cardano.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The concept that numbers could be less than zero, that is negative numbers, was unknown until 1545 when Geronimo Cardano introduced the idea.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim mathematicians introduced negative numbers for use in a variety of arithmetic functions at least 400 years prior to Cardano.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Negative numbers were invented by Brahmagupta (598 – 665 AD).<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://cbse-sample-papers.blogspot.com/2008/09/short-biographies-of-famous.html|2=2013-01-10}} Famous Indian Mathematicians Biography] - iCBSE, September 2008</ref> His main work was ''Brahmasphutasiddhanta'', which was later translated into Arabic as ''Sind Hind''.
Negative numbers were invented by Brahmagupta (598 – 665 AD).<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://cbse-sample-papers.blogspot.com/2008/09/short-biographies-of-famous.html|2=2013-01-10}} Famous Indian Mathematicians Biography] - iCBSE, September 2008</ref> His main work was ''Brahmasphutasiddhanta'', which was later translated into Arabic as ''Sind Hind''.
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===Logarithms===
===Logarithms===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' In 1614, John Napier invented logarithms and logarithmic tables.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim mathematicians invented logarithms and produced logarithmic tables several centuries prior. Such tables were common in the Islamic world as early as the 13th century.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' In 1614, John Napier invented logarithms and logarithmic tables.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim mathematicians invented logarithms and produced logarithmic tables several centuries prior. Such tables were common in the Islamic world as early as the 13th century.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The apologetic position is unexampled and unreferenced, and therefore cannot be assessed.
The apologetic position is unexampled and unreferenced, and therefore cannot be assessed.
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===Geometry===
===Geometry===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' During the 17th century Rene Descartes made the discovery that algebra could be used to solve geometrical problems. By this, he greatly advanced the science of geometry.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Mathematicians of the Islamic Empire accomplished precisely this as early as the 9th century A.D. Thabit bin Qurrah was the first to do so, and he was followed by Abu'l Wafa, whose 10th century book utilized algebra to advance geometry into an exact and simplified science.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' During the 17th century Rene Descartes made the discovery that algebra could be used to solve geometrical problems. By this, he greatly advanced the science of geometry.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Mathematicians of the Islamic Empire accomplished precisely this as early as the 9th century A.D. Thabit bin Qurrah was the first to do so, and he was followed by Abu'l Wafa, whose 10th century book utilized algebra to advance geometry into an exact and simplified science.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Apologists are relying on the ignorant assumption that anyone with a [[Middle East|Middle-Eastern]] name must be Muslim. Thabit Ibn Qurrah (as with Omar Khayyam) did not belong to the Islamic faith. He was a member of the Sabian sect (who were star-worshipers) from Harran.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Thabit.html|2=2013-01-10}} Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani] - The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive (University of St Andrews), November 1999</ref>  
Apologists are relying on the ignorant assumption that anyone with a [[Middle East|Middle-Eastern]] name must be Muslim. Thabit Ibn Qurrah (as with Omar Khayyam) did not belong to the Islamic faith. He was a member of the Sabian sect (who were star-worshipers) from Harran.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Thabit.html|2=2013-01-10}} Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani] - The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive (University of St Andrews), November 1999</ref>  
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===Binomial Theorem===
===Binomial Theorem===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, developed the binomial theorem, which is a crucial component for the study of algebra.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Hundreds of Muslim mathematicians utilized and perfected the binomial theorem. They initiated its use for the systematic solution of algebraic problems during the 10th century (or prior).<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, developed the binomial theorem, which is a crucial component for the study of algebra.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Hundreds of Muslim mathematicians utilized and perfected the binomial theorem. They initiated its use for the systematic solution of algebraic problems during the 10th century (or prior).<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The apologetic position is unexampled and unreferenced, and therefore cannot be assessed.
The apologetic position is unexampled and unreferenced, and therefore cannot be assessed.
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===Astronomy===
===Astronomy===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' No improvement had been made in the astronomy of the ancients during the Middle Ages regarding the motion of planets until the 13th century. Then Alphonso the Wise of Castile (Middle Spain) invented the Aphonsine Tables, which were more accurate than Ptolemy's.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim astronomers made numerous improvements upon Ptolemy's findings as early as the 9th century. They were the first astronomers to dispute his archaic ideas. In their critic of the Greeks, they synthesized proof that the sun is the center of the solar system and that the orbits of the earth and other planets might be elliptical. They produced hundreds of highly accurate astronomical tables and star charts. Many of their calculations are so precise that they are regarded as contemporary. The Alphonsine Tables are little more than copies of works on astronomy transmitted to Europe via Islamic Spain, i.e. the Toledo Tables.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' No improvement had been made in the astronomy of the ancients during the Middle Ages regarding the motion of planets until the 13th century. Then Alphonso the Wise of Castile (Middle Spain) invented the Aphonsine Tables, which were more accurate than Ptolemy's.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim astronomers made numerous improvements upon Ptolemy's findings as early as the 9th century. They were the first astronomers to dispute his archaic ideas. In their critic of the Greeks, they synthesized proof that the sun is the center of the solar system and that the orbits of the earth and other planets might be elliptical. They produced hundreds of highly accurate astronomical tables and star charts. Many of their calculations are so precise that they are regarded as contemporary. The Alphonsine Tables are little more than copies of works on astronomy transmitted to Europe via Islamic Spain, i.e. the Toledo Tables.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


King Alphoso did not invent the Alphonsine Tables. He merely commissioned its creation by a team of astronomers (led by a Jew named Isaac Ibn Said). It was based on the principles set out by Ptolemy but including new observations (so, naturally, it was more accurate).  
King Alphoso did not invent the Alphonsine Tables. He merely commissioned its creation by a team of astronomers (led by a Jew named Isaac Ibn Said). It was based on the principles set out by Ptolemy but including new observations (so, naturally, it was more accurate).  
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===Optical Lenses===
===Optical Lenses===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The English scholar Roger Bacon (d. 1292) first mentioned glass lenses for improving vision. At nearly the same time, eyeglasses could be found in use both in China and Europe.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented eyeglasses during the 9th century, and they were manufactured and sold throughout Spain for over two centuries. Any mention of eyeglasses by Roger Bacon was simply a regurgitation of the work of al-Haytham (d. 1039), whose research Bacon frequently referred to.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The English scholar Roger Bacon (d. 1292) first mentioned glass lenses for improving vision. At nearly the same time, eyeglasses could be found in use both in China and Europe.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented eyeglasses during the 9th century, and they were manufactured and sold throughout Spain for over two centuries. Any mention of eyeglasses by Roger Bacon was simply a regurgitation of the work of al-Haytham (d. 1039), whose research Bacon frequently referred to.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The Chinese were the first to use corrective optical lenses between 250 BC to 100 AD.<ref>Andreu Llobera Adan - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.tesisenred.net/bitstream/handle/10803/3342/alla31de32.pdf|2=2013-01-10}} Integrated Optics Technology on Silicon: Optical Transducers. PDF] - Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Departament de Física), October 24, 2002, ISBN 8468810037</ref>  
The Chinese were the first to use corrective optical lenses between 250 BC to 100 AD.<ref>Andreu Llobera Adan - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.tesisenred.net/bitstream/handle/10803/3342/alla31de32.pdf|2=2013-01-10}} Integrated Optics Technology on Silicon: Optical Transducers. PDF] - Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Departament de Física), October 24, 2002, ISBN 8468810037</ref>  
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===Gunpowder===
===Gunpowder===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Gunpowder was developed in the Western world as a result of Roger Bacon's work in 1242. The first usage of gunpowder in weapons was when the Chinese fired it from bamboo shoots in attempt to frighten Mongol conquerors. They produced it by adding sulfur and charcoal to saltpeter.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' The Chinese developed saltpeter for use in fireworks and knew of no tactical military use for gunpowder, nor did they invent its formula. Research by Reinuad and Fave have clearly shown that gunpowder was formulated initially by Muslim chemists. Further, these historians claim that the Muslims developed the first fire-arms. Notably, Muslim armies used grenades and other weapons in their defence of Algericus against the Franks during the 14th century. Jean Mathes indicates that the Muslim rulers had stock-piles of grenades, rifles, crude cannons, incendiary devices, sulfur bombs and pistols decades before such devices were used in Europe. The first mention of a cannon was in an Arabic text around 1300 A.D. Roger Bacon learned of the formula for gunpowder from Latin translations of Arabic books. He brought forth nothing original in this regard.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Gunpowder was developed in the Western world as a result of Roger Bacon's work in 1242. The first usage of gunpowder in weapons was when the Chinese fired it from bamboo shoots in attempt to frighten Mongol conquerors. They produced it by adding sulfur and charcoal to saltpeter.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' The Chinese developed saltpeter for use in fireworks and knew of no tactical military use for gunpowder, nor did they invent its formula. Research by Reinuad and Fave have clearly shown that gunpowder was formulated initially by Muslim chemists. Further, these historians claim that the Muslims developed the first fire-arms. Notably, Muslim armies used grenades and other weapons in their defence of Algericus against the Franks during the 14th century. Jean Mathes indicates that the Muslim rulers had stock-piles of grenades, rifles, crude cannons, incendiary devices, sulfur bombs and pistols decades before such devices were used in Europe. The first mention of a cannon was in an Arabic text around 1300 A.D. Roger Bacon learned of the formula for gunpowder from Latin translations of Arabic books. He brought forth nothing original in this regard.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The entire apologetic case is false. The Chinese knew the formula for gunpowder and used it for military purposes including grenades, fragmentation bombs, rockets, and even an early form of the gun/cannon in the 12<sup>th</sup> century Sung Dynasty.<ref>[http://eu.dummies.com/how-to/content/adding-firepower-with-the-invention-of-gunpowder.html Adding Firepower with the Invention of Gunpowder] - Dummies.com</ref>
The entire apologetic case is false. The Chinese knew the formula for gunpowder and used it for military purposes including grenades, fragmentation bombs, rockets, and even an early form of the gun/cannon in the 12<sup>th</sup> century Sung Dynasty.<ref>[http://eu.dummies.com/how-to/content/adding-firepower-with-the-invention-of-gunpowder.html Adding Firepower with the Invention of Gunpowder] - Dummies.com</ref>
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===Compass===
===Compass===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The compass was invented by the Chinese who may have been the first to use it for navigational purposes sometime between 1000 and 1100 A.D. The earliest reference to its use in navigation was by the Englishman, Alexander Neckam (1157-1217).<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim geographers and navigators learned of the magnetic needle, possibly from the Chinese, and were the first to use magnetic needles in navigation. They invented the compass and passed the knowledge of its use in navigation to the West. European navigators relied on Muslim pilots and their instruments when exploring unknown territories. Gustav Le Bon claims that the magnetic needle and compass were entirely invented by the Muslims and that the Chinese had little to do with it. Neckam, as well as the Chinese, probably learned of it from Muslim traders. It is noteworthy that the Chinese improved their navigational expertise after they began interacting with the Muslims during the 8th century.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The compass was invented by the Chinese who may have been the first to use it for navigational purposes sometime between 1000 and 1100 A.D. The earliest reference to its use in navigation was by the Englishman, Alexander Neckam (1157-1217).<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim geographers and navigators learned of the magnetic needle, possibly from the Chinese, and were the first to use magnetic needles in navigation. They invented the compass and passed the knowledge of its use in navigation to the West. European navigators relied on Muslim pilots and their instruments when exploring unknown territories. Gustav Le Bon claims that the magnetic needle and compass were entirely invented by the Muslims and that the Chinese had little to do with it. Neckam, as well as the Chinese, probably learned of it from Muslim traders. It is noteworthy that the Chinese improved their navigational expertise after they began interacting with the Muslims during the 8th century.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Another appropriation of a Chinese invention.<ref>Mary Bellis - [{{Reference archive|1=http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/a/Compass.htm|2=2013-01-10}} The Compass and other Magnetic Innovations] - About.com (Inventors), accessed January 10, 2013</ref> The first known compass surfaced in China in the 1<sup>st</sup> century AD (at least 5 centuries before there were Muslims).<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20101204153911/http://www.ocean.washington.edu/people/grads/mpruis/magnetics/history/hist.html|2=2013-01-10}} History of Magnetics] - University of Washington (School of Oceanography), archived December 4, 2010</ref> Some say that the compass was introduced by the Chinese to the Arabs (not the other way around) during the Northern Sung Dynasty (960 - 1127 AD).<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20050311231150/http://www.wcsu.k12.vt.us/~newfane/4inventions/4_great_invention.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Four Great Inventions of Ancient China - the Compass] - Windham Central Supervisory Union, archived March 11, 2005</ref>
Another appropriation of a Chinese invention.<ref>Mary Bellis - [{{Reference archive|1=http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/a/Compass.htm|2=2013-01-10}} The Compass and other Magnetic Innovations] - About.com (Inventors), accessed January 10, 2013</ref> The first known compass surfaced in China in the 1<sup>st</sup> century AD (at least 5 centuries before there were Muslims).<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20101204153911/http://www.ocean.washington.edu/people/grads/mpruis/magnetics/history/hist.html|2=2013-01-10}} History of Magnetics] - University of Washington (School of Oceanography), archived December 4, 2010</ref> Some say that the compass was introduced by the Chinese to the Arabs (not the other way around) during the Northern Sung Dynasty (960 - 1127 AD).<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20050311231150/http://www.wcsu.k12.vt.us/~newfane/4inventions/4_great_invention.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Four Great Inventions of Ancient China - the Compass] - Windham Central Supervisory Union, archived March 11, 2005</ref>
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===Racial Typing===
===Racial Typing===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The first man to classify the races was the German Johann F. Blumenbach, who divided mankind into white, yellow, brown, black and red peoples.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim scholars of the 9th through 14th centuries invented the science of ethnography. A number of Muslim geographers classified the races, writing detailed explanations of their unique cultural habits and physical appearances. They wrote thousands of pages on this subject. Blumenbach's works were insignificant in comparison.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The first man to classify the races was the German Johann F. Blumenbach, who divided mankind into white, yellow, brown, black and red peoples.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim scholars of the 9th through 14th centuries invented the science of ethnography. A number of Muslim geographers classified the races, writing detailed explanations of their unique cultural habits and physical appearances. They wrote thousands of pages on this subject. Blumenbach's works were insignificant in comparison.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Although we will not challenge the claim that Muslims invented racial-typing, their explanation above is false. [[Racism|Racial discrimination]] had been used much earlier by [[Muhammad]] bin Abdullah (c. 570 - 632 AD) when he called black people ‘raisin heads’.<ref>"''Narrated Anas bin Malik: The Prophet said, "Listen and obey (your chief) even if an Ethiopian whose head is like a raisin were made your chief."'' - {{Bukhari|9|89|256}}</ref>
Although we will not challenge the claim that Muslims invented racial-typing, their explanation above is false. [[Racism|Racial discrimination]] had been used much earlier by [[Muhammad]] bin Abdullah (c. 570 - 632 AD) when he called black people ‘raisin heads’.<ref>"''Narrated Anas bin Malik: The Prophet said, "Listen and obey (your chief) even if an Ethiopian whose head is like a raisin were made your chief."'' - {{Bukhari|9|89|256}}</ref>
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===Geography===
===Geography===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The science of geography was revived during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries when the ancient works of Ptolemy were discovered. The Crusades and the Portuguese/Spanish expeditions also contributed to this reawakening. The first scientifically-based treatise on geography were produced during this period by Europe's scholars.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim geographers produced untold volumes of books on the geography of Africa, Asia, India, China and the Indies during the 8th through 15th centuries. These writings included the world's first geographical encyclopedias, almanacs and road maps. Ibn Battutah's 14th century masterpieces provide a detailed view of the geography of the ancient world. The Muslim geographers of the 10th through 15th centuries far exceeded the output by Europeans regarding the geography of these regions well into the 18th century. The Crusades led to the destruction of educational institutions, their scholars and books. They brought nothing substantive regarding geography to the Western world.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The science of geography was revived during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries when the ancient works of Ptolemy were discovered. The Crusades and the Portuguese/Spanish expeditions also contributed to this reawakening. The first scientifically-based treatise on geography were produced during this period by Europe's scholars.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim geographers produced untold volumes of books on the geography of Africa, Asia, India, China and the Indies during the 8th through 15th centuries. These writings included the world's first geographical encyclopedias, almanacs and road maps. Ibn Battutah's 14th century masterpieces provide a detailed view of the geography of the ancient world. The Muslim geographers of the 10th through 15th centuries far exceeded the output by Europeans regarding the geography of these regions well into the 18th century. The Crusades led to the destruction of educational institutions, their scholars and books. They brought nothing substantive regarding geography to the Western world.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Strike two to the apologists. The Muslim geographers were at the forefront of geography before the western world became interested.
Strike two to the apologists. The Muslim geographers were at the forefront of geography before the western world became interested.
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===Chemistry===
===Chemistry===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Robert Boyle, in the 17th century, originated the science of chemistry.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' A variety of Muslim chemists, including ar-Razi, al-Jabr, al-Biruni and al-Kindi, performed scientific experiments in chemistry some 700 years prior to Boyle. Durant writes that the Muslims introduced the experimental method to this science. Humboldt regards the Muslims as the founders of chemistry.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Robert Boyle, in the 17th century, originated the science of chemistry.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' A variety of Muslim chemists, including ar-Razi, al-Jabr, al-Biruni and al-Kindi, performed scientific experiments in chemistry some 700 years prior to Boyle. Durant writes that the Muslims introduced the experimental method to this science. Humboldt regards the Muslims as the founders of chemistry.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Notwithstanding the contribution the Muslim alchemists made, the invention of chemistry should really be attributed to the Ancient Egyptians as evidenced by the Leyden Papyrus (reference: Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead, Professor of Chemistry at Faculty of Science-University of Cairo Giza-Egypt and director of Science Heritage Center.)<ref>See, "[http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam03.html Technical Arts Related To Alchemy in Old Egypt]" edited by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead.</ref>
Notwithstanding the contribution the Muslim alchemists made, the invention of chemistry should really be attributed to the Ancient Egyptians as evidenced by the Leyden Papyrus (reference: Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead, Professor of Chemistry at Faculty of Science-University of Cairo Giza-Egypt and director of Science Heritage Center.)<ref>See, "[http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam03.html Technical Arts Related To Alchemy in Old Egypt]" edited by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead.</ref>
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===Geology===
===Geology===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Leonardo da Vinci (16th century) fathered the science of geology when he noted that fossils found on mountains indicated a watery origin of the earth.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Al-Biruni (1lth century) made precisely this observation and added much to it, including a huge book on geology, hundreds of years before Da Vinci was born. Ibn Sina noted this as well (see pages 100-101). It is probable that Da Vinci first learned of this concept from Latin translations of Islamic books. He added nothing original to their findings.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Leonardo da Vinci (16th century) fathered the science of geology when he noted that fossils found on mountains indicated a watery origin of the earth.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Al-Biruni (1lth century) made precisely this observation and added much to it, including a huge book on geology, hundreds of years before Da Vinci was born. Ibn Sina noted this as well (see pages 100-101). It is probable that Da Vinci first learned of this concept from Latin translations of Islamic books. He added nothing original to their findings.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


There is no evidence that da Vinci consulted [[Arabic]] texts on this issue. To say that he added nothing original to the Arabic findings is highly uncharitable.  
There is no evidence that da Vinci consulted [[Arabic]] texts on this issue. To say that he added nothing original to the Arabic findings is highly uncharitable.  
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===Formation of Valleys===
===Formation of Valleys===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The first mention of the geological formation of valleys was in 1756, when Nicolas Desmarest proposed that they were formed over a long periods of time by streams.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Ibn Sina and al-Biruni made precisely this discovery during the 11th century (see pages 102 and 103), fully 700 years prior to Desmarest.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The first mention of the geological formation of valleys was in 1756, when Nicolas Desmarest proposed that they were formed over a long periods of time by streams.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Ibn Sina and al-Biruni made precisely this discovery during the 11th century (see pages 102 and 103), fully 700 years prior to Desmarest.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Minor point. Conceded.
Minor point. Conceded.
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===First Great Experimenter===
===First Great Experimenter===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Galileo (17th century) was the world's first great experimenter.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Al-Biruni (d. 1050) was the world's first great experimenter. He wrote over 200 books, many of which discuss his precise experiments. His literary output in the sciences amounts to some 13,000 pages, far exceeding that written by Galileo or, for that matter, Galileo and Newton combined.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Galileo (17th century) was the world's first great experimenter.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Al-Biruni (d. 1050) was the world's first great experimenter. He wrote over 200 books, many of which discuss his precise experiments. His literary output in the sciences amounts to some 13,000 pages, far exceeding that written by Galileo or, for that matter, Galileo and Newton combined.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Not to demean Al-Biruni’s genius, it must be pointed out that quantity does not equate to quality. Archimedes (287 – 212 BC) was also quite an experimenter for his time.
Not to demean Al-Biruni’s genius, it must be pointed out that quantity does not equate to quality. Archimedes (287 – 212 BC) was also quite an experimenter for his time.
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===Medicine===
===Medicine===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The Italian Giovanni Morgagni is regarded as the father of pathology because he was the first to correctly describe the nature of disease.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Islam's surgeons were the first pathologists. They fully realized the nature of disease and described a variety of diseases to modern detail. Ibn Zuhr correctly described the nature of pleurisy, tuberculosis and pericarditis. Az-Zahrawi accurately documented the pathology of hydrocephalus (water on the brain) and other congenital diseases. Ibn al-Quff and Ibn an-Nafs gave perfect descriptions of the diseases of circulation. Other Muslim surgeons gave the first accurate descriptions of certain malignancies, including cancer of the stomach, bowel and esophagus. These surgeons were the originators of pathology, not Giovanni Morgagni.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The Italian Giovanni Morgagni is regarded as the father of pathology because he was the first to correctly describe the nature of disease.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Islam's surgeons were the first pathologists. They fully realized the nature of disease and described a variety of diseases to modern detail. Ibn Zuhr correctly described the nature of pleurisy, tuberculosis and pericarditis. Az-Zahrawi accurately documented the pathology of hydrocephalus (water on the brain) and other congenital diseases. Ibn al-Quff and Ibn an-Nafs gave perfect descriptions of the diseases of circulation. Other Muslim surgeons gave the first accurate descriptions of certain malignancies, including cancer of the stomach, bowel and esophagus. These surgeons were the originators of pathology, not Giovanni Morgagni.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The field of [[Medicine and Healthcare in Islam|Islamic Medicine]] owes its origins to two Christians, Yahya ibn Masawayh and Hunain ibn Ishaq. The Nestorian Christian, Yahya ibn Masawayh, wrote many works on fevers, [[hygiene]], and dietetics. His was the first treatise on ophthalmology, but he was soon surpassed in this field by his famous pupil, Hunain ibn Ishaq, aka Johannitius, whom some regard as the father of Arab medicine. Razi, the physician of genius known in medieval [[Europe]] as Rhazes, profited greatly from the works started by Hunain ibn Ishaq.<ref>Gaston Wiet (Author), S. Feiler (Translator) - [http://www.khamush.com/sufism/golden.htm Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate (Centers of Civilization)] - University of Oklahoma Press; 1st edition (Chapter 5), 1971, ISBN 9780806109220</ref>
The field of [[Medicine and Healthcare in Islam|Islamic Medicine]] owes its origins to two Christians, Yahya ibn Masawayh and Hunain ibn Ishaq. The Nestorian Christian, Yahya ibn Masawayh, wrote many works on fevers, [[hygiene]], and dietetics. His was the first treatise on ophthalmology, but he was soon surpassed in this field by his famous pupil, Hunain ibn Ishaq, aka Johannitius, whom some regard as the father of Arab medicine. Razi, the physician of genius known in medieval [[Europe]] as Rhazes, profited greatly from the works started by Hunain ibn Ishaq.<ref>Gaston Wiet (Author), S. Feiler (Translator) - [http://www.khamush.com/sufism/golden.htm Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate (Centers of Civilization)] - University of Oklahoma Press; 1st edition (Chapter 5), 1971, ISBN 9780806109220</ref>
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===Microbes===
===Microbes===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Paul Ehrlich (19th century) is the originator of drug chemotherapy, that is the use of specific drugs to kill microbes.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim physicians used a variety of specific substances to destroy microbes. They applied sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite. Ar-Razi (10th century) used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Paul Ehrlich (19th century) is the originator of drug chemotherapy, that is the use of specific drugs to kill microbes.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim physicians used a variety of specific substances to destroy microbes. They applied sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite. Ar-Razi (10th century) used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


There is no evidence that Muslim physicians knew the existence of microbes. In fact, pre-Roman civilizations used burned brimstone as a medicine and used "bricks" of sulfur as fumigants, bleaching agents, and incense in religious rites. Pliny (23 - 27 AD) reported that sulfur was a "most singular kind of earth and an agent of great power on other substances," and had "medicinal virtues”. The Romans used sulfur or fumes from its combustion as an insecticide and to purify a sick room and cleanse its air of evil. The same uses were reported by Homer in the Odyssey in 1000 BC.<ref>Donald W. Davis, Randall A. Detro - [{{Reference archive|1=http://georgiagulfsulfur.com/history.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Fire and Brimstone The History of Melting Louisiana’s Sulphur] - Louisiana Geological Survey, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 1992</ref>
There is no evidence that Muslim physicians knew the existence of microbes. In fact, pre-Roman civilizations used burned brimstone as a medicine and used "bricks" of sulfur as fumigants, bleaching agents, and incense in religious rites. Pliny (23 - 27 AD) reported that sulfur was a "most singular kind of earth and an agent of great power on other substances," and had "medicinal virtues”. The Romans used sulfur or fumes from its combustion as an insecticide and to purify a sick room and cleanse its air of evil. The same uses were reported by Homer in the Odyssey in 1000 BC.<ref>Donald W. Davis, Randall A. Detro - [{{Reference archive|1=http://georgiagulfsulfur.com/history.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Fire and Brimstone The History of Melting Louisiana’s Sulphur] - Louisiana Geological Survey, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 1992</ref>
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===Distilled Alcohol===
===Distilled Alcohol===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Purified alcohol, made through distillation, was first produced by Arnau de Villanova, a Spanish alchemist, in 1300 A.D.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Numerous Muslim chemists produced medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation as early as the 10th century and manufactured on a large scale the first distillation devices for use in chemistry. They used alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Purified alcohol, made through distillation, was first produced by Arnau de Villanova, a Spanish alchemist, in 1300 A.D.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Numerous Muslim chemists produced medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation as early as the 10th century and manufactured on a large scale the first distillation devices for use in chemistry. They used alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Distilled [[Alcohol|wine]] was known in China by the 7<sup>th</sup> century.<ref name="China">[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20041216093844/http://www.askasia.org/frclasrm/lessplan/l000019.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Who Invented It? When? Chinese Inventions: An Introductory Activity] - Ask Asia, archived December 16, 2004</ref>
Distilled [[Alcohol|wine]] was known in China by the 7<sup>th</sup> century.<ref name="China">[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20041216093844/http://www.askasia.org/frclasrm/lessplan/l000019.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Who Invented It? When? Chinese Inventions: An Introductory Activity] - Ask Asia, archived December 16, 2004</ref>
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===Surgical Anesthetics===
===Surgical Anesthetics===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The first surgery performed under inhalation anesthesia was conducted by C.W. Long, an American, in 1845.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Six hundred years prior to Long, Islamic Spain's Az-Zahrawi and Ibn Zuhr, among other Muslim surgeons, performed hundreds of surgeries under inhalation anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The first surgery performed under inhalation anesthesia was conducted by C.W. Long, an American, in 1845.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Six hundred years prior to Long, Islamic Spain's Az-Zahrawi and Ibn Zuhr, among other Muslim surgeons, performed hundreds of surgeries under inhalation anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Dioscorides (40 - 90 AD), was a Greek surgeon with the armies of the Roman Emperor Nero. He wrote excellent descriptions of nearly 600 plants, including cannabis, colchicum, water hemlock, and peppermint, contained in his De materia medica. Written in five books around the year 77, this work deals with approximately 1,000 simple drugs.  
Dioscorides (40 - 90 AD), was a Greek surgeon with the armies of the Roman Emperor Nero. He wrote excellent descriptions of nearly 600 plants, including cannabis, colchicum, water hemlock, and peppermint, contained in his De materia medica. Written in five books around the year 77, this work deals with approximately 1,000 simple drugs.  
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===Opium Extracts===
===Opium Extracts===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' During the 16th century Paracelsus invented the use of opium extracts for anesthesia.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim physicians introduced the anesthetic value of opium derivatives during the Middle Ages. Opium was originally used as an anesthetic agent by the Greeks. Paracelus was a student of Ibn Sina's works from which it is almost assured that he derived this idea.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' During the 16th century Paracelsus invented the use of opium extracts for anesthesia.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim physicians introduced the anesthetic value of opium derivatives during the Middle Ages. Opium was originally used as an anesthetic agent by the Greeks. Paracelus was a student of Ibn Sina's works from which it is almost assured that he derived this idea.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Dioscorides (40 - 90 AD), wrote about the use of opium and mandragora as surgical anesthetics. The Ancient Egyptians also use mandrake and hashish as pain-killers.<ref name="Egypt">[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20090311024005/http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/medicine.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Ancient Egyptian Medicine] - Pharaonic Egypt, archived March 11, 2009</ref>
Dioscorides (40 - 90 AD), wrote about the use of opium and mandragora as surgical anesthetics. The Ancient Egyptians also use mandrake and hashish as pain-killers.<ref name="Egypt">[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20090311024005/http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/medicine.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Ancient Egyptian Medicine] - Pharaonic Egypt, archived March 11, 2009</ref>
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===Modern Anesthesia===
===Modern Anesthesia===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Modern anesthesia was invented in the 19th century by Humphrey Davy and Horace Wells.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Modern anesthesia was discovered, mastered and perfected by Muslim anesthetists 900 years before the advent of Davy and Wells. They utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Modern anesthesia was invented in the 19th century by Humphrey Davy and Horace Wells.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Modern anesthesia was discovered, mastered and perfected by Muslim anesthetists 900 years before the advent of Davy and Wells. They utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Again, Dioscorides (40 - 90 AD), wrote about the use of opium and mandragora as surgical anesthetics.  
Again, Dioscorides (40 - 90 AD), wrote about the use of opium and mandragora as surgical anesthetics.  
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===Medical Quarantine===
===Medical Quarantine===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The concept of quarantine was first developed in 1403. In Venice, a law was passed preventing strangers from entering the city until a certain waiting period had passed. If, by then, no sign of illness could be found, they were allowed in.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' The concept of quarantine was first introduced in the 7th century A.D. by the prophet Muhammad, who wisely warned against entering or leaving a region suffering from plague. As early as the 10th century, Muslim physicians innovated the use of isolation wards for individuals suffering with communicable diseases.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The concept of quarantine was first developed in 1403. In Venice, a law was passed preventing strangers from entering the city until a certain waiting period had passed. If, by then, no sign of illness could be found, they were allowed in.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' The concept of quarantine was first introduced in the 7th century A.D. by the prophet Muhammad, who wisely warned against entering or leaving a region suffering from plague. As early as the 10th century, Muslim physicians innovated the use of isolation wards for individuals suffering with communicable diseases.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Quarantine was first proposed by Moses who ordered that cases of [[leprosy]] should be segregated, that dwellings from which infected Jews had gone should be inspected before again being occupied, and that persons recovering from contagious disease were not to be allowed to go abroad until examined. The modern quarantine harks back to these sanitary regulations of the [[Taurat|Old Testament]].<ref>John D. Keyser - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.hope-of-israel.org/bihealth.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Ancient Bible Health Secrets Revealed Today] - Hope of Israel Ministries, accessed January 10, 2013</ref>
Quarantine was first proposed by Moses who ordered that cases of [[leprosy]] should be segregated, that dwellings from which infected Jews had gone should be inspected before again being occupied, and that persons recovering from contagious disease were not to be allowed to go abroad until examined. The modern quarantine harks back to these sanitary regulations of the [[Taurat|Old Testament]].<ref>John D. Keyser - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.hope-of-israel.org/bihealth.htm|2=2013-01-10}} Ancient Bible Health Secrets Revealed Today] - Hope of Israel Ministries, accessed January 10, 2013</ref>
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===Antiseptic===
===Antiseptic===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The scientific use of antiseptics in surgery was discovered by the British surgeon Joseph Lister in 1865.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' As early as the 10th century, Muslim physicians and surgeons were applying purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent. Surgeons in Islamic Spain utilized special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery. They also originated specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period. Their success rate was so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to Cordova, Spain, to be treated at what was comparably the "Mayo Clinic" of the Middle Ages.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The scientific use of antiseptics in surgery was discovered by the British surgeon Joseph Lister in 1865.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' As early as the 10th century, Muslim physicians and surgeons were applying purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent. Surgeons in Islamic Spain utilized special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery. They also originated specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period. Their success rate was so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to Cordova, Spain, to be treated at what was comparably the "Mayo Clinic" of the Middle Ages.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The Ancient Egyptians used ‘Oil of Fir’ as an antiseptic.<ref name="Egypt"></ref>  
The Ancient Egyptians used ‘Oil of Fir’ as an antiseptic.<ref name="Egypt"></ref>  
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===Surgery===
===Surgery===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' In 1545, the scientific use of surgery was advanced by the French surgeon Ambroise Pare. Prior to him, surgeons attempted to stop bleeding through the gruesome procedure of searing the wound with boiling oil. Pare stopped the use of boiling oils and began ligating arteries. He is considered the "father of rational surgery." Pare was also one of the first Europeans to condemn such grotesque "surgical" procedures as trepanning (see reference #6, pg. 110).<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Islamic Spain's illustrious surgeon, az-Zahrawi (d. 1013), began ligating arteries with fine sutures over 500 years prior to Pare. He perfected the use of Catgut, that is suture made from animal intestines. Additionally, he instituted the use of cotton plus wax to plug bleeding wounds. The full details of his works were made available to Europeans through Latin translations.  
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' In 1545, the scientific use of surgery was advanced by the French surgeon Ambroise Pare. Prior to him, surgeons attempted to stop bleeding through the gruesome procedure of searing the wound with boiling oil. Pare stopped the use of boiling oils and began ligating arteries. He is considered the "father of rational surgery." Pare was also one of the first Europeans to condemn such grotesque "surgical" procedures as trepanning (see reference #6, pg. 110).<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Islamic Spain's illustrious surgeon, az-Zahrawi (d. 1013), began ligating arteries with fine sutures over 500 years prior to Pare. He perfected the use of Catgut, that is suture made from animal intestines. Additionally, he instituted the use of cotton plus wax to plug bleeding wounds. The full details of his works were made available to Europeans through Latin translations.  


Despite this, barbers and herdsmen continued be the primary individuals practicing the "art" of surgery for nearly six centuries after az-Zahrawi's death. Pare himself was a barber, albeit more skilled and conscientious than the average ones.  
Despite this, barbers and herdsmen continued be the primary individuals practicing the "art" of surgery for nearly six centuries after az-Zahrawi's death. Pare himself was a barber, albeit more skilled and conscientious than the average ones.  
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===Blood Circulation===
===Blood Circulation===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' William Harvey, during the early 17th century, discovered that blood circulates. He was the first to correctly describe the function of the heart, arteries and veins. Rome's Galen had presented erroneous ideas regarding the circulatory system, and Harvey was the first to determine that blood is pumped throughout the body via the action of the heart and the venous valves. Therefore, he is regarded as the founder of human physiology.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' In the 10th century, Islam's ar-Razi wrote an in-depth treatise on the venous system, accurately describing the function of the veins and their valves. Ibn an-Nafs and Ibn al-Quff (13th century) provided full documentation that the blood circulates and correctly described the physiology of the heart and the function of its valves 300 years before Harvey. William Harvey was a graduate of Italy's famous Padua University at a time when the majority of its curriculum was based upon Ibn Sina's and ar-Razi's textbooks.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' William Harvey, during the early 17th century, discovered that blood circulates. He was the first to correctly describe the function of the heart, arteries and veins. Rome's Galen had presented erroneous ideas regarding the circulatory system, and Harvey was the first to determine that blood is pumped throughout the body via the action of the heart and the venous valves. Therefore, he is regarded as the founder of human physiology.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' In the 10th century, Islam's ar-Razi wrote an in-depth treatise on the venous system, accurately describing the function of the veins and their valves. Ibn an-Nafs and Ibn al-Quff (13th century) provided full documentation that the blood circulates and correctly described the physiology of the heart and the function of its valves 300 years before Harvey. William Harvey was a graduate of Italy's famous Padua University at a time when the majority of its curriculum was based upon Ibn Sina's and ar-Razi's textbooks.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Blood circulation appears discussed in full and complex form in The Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal Medicine in China by the 2<sup>nd</sup> century BC.<ref name="China"></ref>
Blood circulation appears discussed in full and complex form in The Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal Medicine in China by the 2<sup>nd</sup> century BC.<ref name="China"></ref>
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===Pharmacopeia===
===Pharmacopeia===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The first pharmacopeia (book of medicines) was published by a German scholar in 1542. According to World Book Encyclopedia, the science of pharmacology was begun in the 1900's as an off-shoot of chemistry due to the analysis of crude plant materials. Chemists, after isolating the active ingredients from plants, realized their medicinal value.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' According to the eminent scholar of Arab history, Phillip Hitti, the Muslims, not the Greeks or Europeans, wrote the first "modern" pharmacopeia. The science of pharmacology was originated by Muslim physicians during the 9th century. They developed it into a highly refined and exact science. Muslim chemists, pharmacists and physicians produced thousands of drugs and/or crude herbal extracts one thousand years prior to the supposed birth of pharmacology. During the 14th century Ibn Baytar wrote a monumental pharmacopeia listing some 1400 different drugs. Hundreds of other pharmacopeias were published during the Islamic Era. It is likely that the German work is an offshoot of that by Ibn Baytar, which was widely circulated in Europe.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The first pharmacopeia (book of medicines) was published by a German scholar in 1542. According to World Book Encyclopedia, the science of pharmacology was begun in the 1900's as an off-shoot of chemistry due to the analysis of crude plant materials. Chemists, after isolating the active ingredients from plants, realized their medicinal value.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' According to the eminent scholar of Arab history, Phillip Hitti, the Muslims, not the Greeks or Europeans, wrote the first "modern" pharmacopeia. The science of pharmacology was originated by Muslim physicians during the 9th century. They developed it into a highly refined and exact science. Muslim chemists, pharmacists and physicians produced thousands of drugs and/or crude herbal extracts one thousand years prior to the supposed birth of pharmacology. During the 14th century Ibn Baytar wrote a monumental pharmacopeia listing some 1400 different drugs. Hundreds of other pharmacopeias were published during the Islamic Era. It is likely that the German work is an offshoot of that by Ibn Baytar, which was widely circulated in Europe.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Pliny the Elder, Caius Plinius Secundus, (23 - 79 AD) wrote 10 books on drugs and medicines in his compendium ‘Natural History’.  
Pliny the Elder, Caius Plinius Secundus, (23 - 79 AD) wrote 10 books on drugs and medicines in his compendium ‘Natural History’.  
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===Medical Theories===
===Medical Theories===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The discovery of the scientific use of drugs in the treatment of specific diseases was made by Paracelsus, the Swiss-born physician, during the 16th century. He is also credited with being the first to use practical experience as a determining factor in the treatment of patients rather than relying exclusively on the works of the ancients.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, az-Zahrawi, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians mastered the science of drug therapy for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. In fact, this concept was entirely their invention. The word "drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive.  
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The discovery of the scientific use of drugs in the treatment of specific diseases was made by Paracelsus, the Swiss-born physician, during the 16th century. He is also credited with being the first to use practical experience as a determining factor in the treatment of patients rather than relying exclusively on the works of the ancients.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, az-Zahrawi, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians mastered the science of drug therapy for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. In fact, this concept was entirely their invention. The word "drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive.  


Muslim physicians were the first to criticize ancient medical theories and practices. Ar-Razi devoted an entire book as a critique of Galen's anatomy. The works of Paracelsus are insignificant compared to the vast volumes of medical writings and original findings accomplished by the medical giants of Islam.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
Muslim physicians were the first to criticize ancient medical theories and practices. Ar-Razi devoted an entire book as a critique of Galen's anatomy. The works of Paracelsus are insignificant compared to the vast volumes of medical writings and original findings accomplished by the medical giants of Islam.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
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===Development of Medical Science===
===Development of Medical Science===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' The first sound approach to the treatment of disease was made by a German, Johann Weger, in the 1500's.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Harvard's George Sarton says that modern medicine is entirely an Islamic development and that Setting the Record Straight the Muslim physicians of the 9th through 12th centuries were precise, scientific, rational and sound in their approach. Johann Weger was among thousands of Europeans physicians during the 15th through 17th centuries who were taught the medicine of ar-Razi and Ibn Sina. He contributed nothing original.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' The first sound approach to the treatment of disease was made by a German, Johann Weger, in the 1500's.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Harvard's George Sarton says that modern medicine is entirely an Islamic development and that Setting the Record Straight the Muslim physicians of the 9th through 12th centuries were precise, scientific, rational and sound in their approach. Johann Weger was among thousands of Europeans physicians during the 15th through 17th centuries who were taught the medicine of ar-Razi and Ibn Sina. He contributed nothing original.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


The Muslim physicians are generally acknowledged to have made great contributions to medical science, particularly ar-Razi and Ibn Sina. However, while not diminishing their greatness, once again, it must be noted that the foundation of Arab medicine was laid by two Christians; Yahya ibn Masawayh and Hunain ibn Ishaq.
The Muslim physicians are generally acknowledged to have made great contributions to medical science, particularly ar-Razi and Ibn Sina. However, while not diminishing their greatness, once again, it must be noted that the foundation of Arab medicine was laid by two Christians; Yahya ibn Masawayh and Hunain ibn Ishaq.
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===Insane Asylums===
===Insane Asylums===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Medical treatment for the insane was modernized by Philippe Pinel when in 1793 he operated France's first insane asylum.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' As early as the 1lth century, Islamic hospitals maintained special wards for the insane. They treated them kindly and presumed their disease was real at a time when the insane were routinely burned alive in Europe as witches and sorcerers. A curative approach was taken for mental illness and, for the first time in history, the mentally ill were treated with supportive care, drugs and psychotherapy. Every major Islamic city maintained an insane asylum where patients were treated at no charge. In fact, the Islamic system for the treatment of the insane excels in comparison to the current model, as it was more humane and was highly effective as well.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Medical treatment for the insane was modernized by Philippe Pinel when in 1793 he operated France's first insane asylum.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' As early as the 1lth century, Islamic hospitals maintained special wards for the insane. They treated them kindly and presumed their disease was real at a time when the insane were routinely burned alive in Europe as witches and sorcerers. A curative approach was taken for mental illness and, for the first time in history, the mentally ill were treated with supportive care, drugs and psychotherapy. Every major Islamic city maintained an insane asylum where patients were treated at no charge. In fact, the Islamic system for the treatment of the insane excels in comparison to the current model, as it was more humane and was highly effective as well.<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


There is evidence that the institution of the hospital, including the wards for the insane, was inherited by the Muslims from both the Persians and the Byzantines. Already before the rise of Islam, the hospital at Jundhapur, near the present Persian city of Ahvaz, was a major medical institution which, in addition to the care of patients, medical instruction was carried out on an extensive basis. There were also hospitals established by Byzantines in their eastern provinces such as [[Syria]] which became rapidly integrated into the Islamic world.<ref>Seyyed Hossein Nasr - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.oocities.org/mutmainaa/food/hospital_islam.html|2=2011-04-18}} Islamic Science, an illustrated study] - Kazi Publications, 2007, p.154, ISBN 9781567443127</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_medicine&oldid=397780389 Byzantine medicine/ Hospitals] - Wikipedia, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
There is evidence that the institution of the hospital, including the wards for the insane, was inherited by the Muslims from both the Persians and the Byzantines. Already before the rise of Islam, the hospital at Jundhapur, near the present Persian city of Ahvaz, was a major medical institution which, in addition to the care of patients, medical instruction was carried out on an extensive basis. There were also hospitals established by Byzantines in their eastern provinces such as [[Syria]] which became rapidly integrated into the Islamic world.<ref>Seyyed Hossein Nasr - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.oocities.org/mutmainaa/food/hospital_islam.html|2=2011-04-18}} Islamic Science, an illustrated study] - Kazi Publications, 2007, p.154, ISBN 9781567443127</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_medicine&oldid=397780389 Byzantine medicine/ Hospitals] - Wikipedia, accessed April 18, 2011</ref>
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===Kerosene===
===Kerosene===


{{Quote||'''What is Taught:''' Kerosene was first produced by an Englishman, Abraham Gesner, in 1853. He distilled it from asphalt.<BR><BR>'''What Should be Taught:''' Muslim chemists produced kerosene as a distillate from petroleum products over 1,000 years prior to Gesner (see Encyclopaedia Britannica under the heading, Petroleum).<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}
{{Quote||'''Co je učeno:''' Kerosene was first produced by an Englishman, Abraham Gesner, in 1853. He distilled it from asphalt.<BR><BR>'''Co by se mělo učit:''' Muslim chemists produced kerosene as a distillate from petroleum products over 1,000 years prior to Gesner (see Encyclopaedia Britannica under the heading, Petroleum).<ref name="Dr K. Ajram"></ref>}}


Another one for the apologists.
Another one for the apologists.


==Conclusion==
==Závěr==
   
   
The real purpose of this article was to re-balance some of these flawed views readers may encounter on other websites and forums which use the works (or derivations thereof) of Dr. K. Ajram. We do think the Muslim scientists in the Golden Age (whether true adherents of Islam or not) did make substantial strides in science and technology, which resulted in a significant contribution to the sum of human knowledge. Scientific accomplishments are often the culmination of accumulated knowledge, rather than lone "miraculous" discoveries by individuals because of their religious and cultural settings. It is a matter of public record that the western scientists who came after the scientists of the Golden Age, e.g. Roger Bacon and Sir Isaac Newton, were aware of their works and also learned from them. However, an analysis of the apologetic claims about their greatness shows some exaggeration. In his haste to exaggerate, Ajram appears to have maligned the contribution of other cultures, downgraded the greatness of non-Muslim scientists, or misappropriated their works.  
The real purpose of this article was to re-balance some of these flawed views readers may encounter on other websites and forums which use the works (or derivations thereof) of Dr. K. Ajram. We do think the Muslim scientists in the Golden Age (whether true adherents of Islam or not) did make substantial strides in science and technology, which resulted in a significant contribution to the sum of human knowledge. Scientific accomplishments are often the culmination of accumulated knowledge, rather than lone "miraculous" discoveries by individuals because of their religious and cultural settings. It is a matter of public record that the western scientists who came after the scientists of the Golden Age, e.g. Roger Bacon and Sir Isaac Newton, were aware of their works and also learned from them. However, an analysis of the apologetic claims about their greatness shows some exaggeration. In his haste to exaggerate, Ajram appears to have maligned the contribution of other cultures, downgraded the greatness of non-Muslim scientists, or misappropriated their works.  
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[[Category:Islamic Propaganda]]
[[Category:Islámská propaganda]]
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Islám a věda]]
[[Category:Literature]]
[[Category:Literatura]]
[[Category:Hector]]
[[Category:Hector]]
[[Category:Incomplete translations]]
[[Category:Incomplete translations]]
[[ru:Достижения мусульманских учёных Золотого Века]]
[[ru:Достижения мусульманских учёных Золотого Века]]
{{page_title|Na pravou míru: Nezázrak islámské vědy}}
{{page_title|Na pravou míru: Nezázrak islámské vědy}}
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