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[[File:Alexander the Great.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Alexander the Great depicted with horns on a silver tetradrachm of Lysimachos, circa 297-281 B.C.]]

The story of Dhul-Qarnayn (in [[Arabic]] ذو القرنين, literally "The Two-Horned One", also transliterated as Zul-Qarnain or Zulqarnain) is found in the 18<sup>th</sup> [[Surah]] of the Qur'an, al-Kahf (the Cave).  While he is never mentioned explicitly by name, the story is clearly based upon a legendary account of Alexander the Great.  For centuries, most Muslim historians and Qur'anic commentators endorsed the identity of Dhul-Qarnayn as Alexander, though some also proposed alternatives. In recent years, this identification of Dhul-Qarnayn has become particularly problematic and controversial for Muslim scholars, as the Qur'an's understanding of Alexander differs remarkably from the image of him in history as a Greek [[Pagan Origins of Islam|pagan]] who fashioned himself as a [[god]]. This has prompted some [[apologists]] to create and advance alternative theories that identify  Dhul-Qarnayn as other prominent historical kings, most notably Cyrus the Great. These alternative theories, though, have major deficiencies and fall short of the strong parallels between the Qur'anic story and legends of Alexander that date to the early 7<sup>th</sup> century. The theory that Dhul-Qarnayn is some other figure such as Cyrus the Great has little evidence in its favor compared to the overwhelming evidence that the story is actually based on a legendary version of Alexander. The story in the Qur'an in fact parallels a medieval Syriac legend of Alexander quote closely; both narratives portray him as a believing king who traveled the world and built a barrier of iron which holds back the tribes of Gog and Magog until Judgement Day. Almost every major element of the Qur'anic story can be found in Christian and Jewish folklore about Alexander which dates back hundreds of years prior to the time of Prophet Muhammad. Most early Muslim commentators and scholars identified Dhul-Qarnayn as Alexander the Great, and some modern ones do too. Historical and Archaeological evidence, though, quite plainly reveal that the real Alexander was a polytheistic pagan who believed he was the literal son of Greek and Egyptian gods. In addition, the story speaks of a giant wall built by Dhul-Qarnayn to hold back the nations of Gog and Magog, yet today, there is no such giant wall of iron and brass between two mountains that is holding back a tribe of people; it likely never existed and was originally a legendary embellishment of the original Alexander legend. 

==Background==
The gargantuan conquests of Alexander the Great, stretching from Macedonia in the West to the river Indus in the East, left an indelible mark on all the regions where his troopers trode. Alexander founded cities, declared himself a god and the son of a god, solved the famous Gordian knot, initiated a new chapter in the history of civilizational exchange and spread Greek Hellenic culture far and wide. Dying at 33 of either alcohol overdose or perhaps poisoning, his legend quickly became larger than life. First Jews and then Christians claimed his as their own, though according to Theodor Nöldeke the origin of their Alexander Romances was actually a Pahlavi Persian Alexander romance (though probably written by a Syriac-speaking Christian) <ref> Encyclopedia of Islam Volume IV E. J. Bril 1997, p. 127</ref>. As the legend of Alexander spread, so too did the claims of his miraculous deeds grow in scope and size. 

===Historical vs Legendary Alexander===

The Dhul-Qarnayn of the Qur'an is the Alexander of legend, not as some authors have asserted the Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 BC) of hisory<ref>For example, [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.understanding-islam.com%2Fq-and-a%2Fsources-of-islam%2Fwho-is-the-prophet-zulqarnain-5247&date=2013-11-25 Amar Ellahi Lone] completely ignores the Alexander Legends of the 4<sup>th</sup>-7<sup>th</sup> century and focuses on a historical account of Alexander. [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranchamber.com%2Fhistory%2Farticles%2Fzolqarnain_cyrus_quran.php&date=2013-11-25 Baha'eddin Khoramshahi] rejects Alexander based solely on his historical identity. And [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fanswering-islam.org%2FAuthors%2FNewton%2Falex.r.html&date=2013-11-25 Khalid Jan] gives background information on the historical Alexander and why he is not a fit to the Qur'anic story.  Expresses no knowledge of the Alexander legends.</ref>.  Instead, it is based entirely upon legendary stories of Alexander which bare little resemblance to the Alexander of history.  In particular, the Qur'an parallels a Syriac legend where Alexander is portrayed as a monotheistic king who awaits the second coming of the Messiah and the end of the world.<ref name="Budge">{{cite web|url= http://books.google.com/books/about/The_History_of_Alexander_the_Great_Being.html?id=_14LmFqhc8QC|title= The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version of the Pseudo-Callisthenes, Volume 1|publisher= The University Press|author= Sir Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge|date= 1889|archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

It has been well understood for many centuries that legendary accounts of Alexander's life began shortly after his death in 323 BC.  These were popular across most of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Persia and even India and China.  In the subsequent centuries after his death, the historical accounts of Alexander were largely forgotten and legendary accounts of his deeds and adventures replaced them in popular folklore.  It is these legendary depictions of Alexander that would have been known in the 7<sup>th</sup> century and not the historically accurate accounts of his life.  It was not until the Renaissance in the 16<sup>th</sup> century that the first historical accounts of Alexanders life were rediscovered and investigated.

===Alexander and the Water of Life===
In addition to the Dhu'l Qarnayn episode and its relationship with the Syriac Alexander legend, the immediately preceeding story about Moses in Surah al Kahf has long been noticed to derive from another story in the Alexander Romance tradition about Alexander's quest to find the water imparting immortality, featuring his cook, a dead fish that springs back to life from this water and escapes, and a wise sage. In {{Quran-range|18|60|65}}, Moses travels to the junction of the two seas with his servant, who later realises that they have left their fish behind there, which has come back to life and swam away through a passage. Moses then meets a sage who imparts wisdom to him. As Tommaso Tesei notes, "The most ancient versions of this story are found in three sources preceding or contemporaneous to the rise of Islam: the Rec. β of the Alexander Romance (fourth/fifth century), the Babylonian  Talmud (Tamīd, 32a–32b), and the so-called Syriac Alexander Song (ca. 630–635)".<ref>Tommaso Tesei (2015) [https://www.almuslih.org/Library/Tesei,%20T%20-%20Some%20Cosmological%20Notions%20from%20Late%20Antiquity.pdf Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context] Journal of the American Oriental Society 135.1</ref>

==Parallels to the Syriac Legend==

In 1889, the renowned scholar and philologist, Sir Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge, translated five Alexander stories from Syriac manuscripts into English. One of these stories was a legend that detailed the exploits of Alexander, the son of Philip the Macedonian, and how he traveled to the ends of the world, made a gate of iron, and shut behind it the Huns so they might not come forth to spoil the land.<ref name="Budge" /> Titled as the Neṣḥānā d-leh d-Aleksandrōs, “the victory of Alexander”, the parallels between this Syriac legend and the story of Dhul-Qarnayn in the Qur'an are detailed below.

===Two Horns===
[[File:7thCAlexanderHorns.png|right|thumb|250px|In 2018, excavations led by Dr. Eleni Procopiou at Katalymata ton Plakoton, an Early Byzantine site within the Akrotiri Peninula on Cyprus, discovered this 7th Century depiction of Alexander the Great with horns. Known as the "Alexander-Heraclius Stele". Professor Sean Anthony regards it as significant, providing "seventh-century Byzantine iconography of Alexander with two horns that is contemporary with the Qurʾan"<ref name="Stewart">.A. Stewart in “A Byzantine Image of Alexander: Literature in Stone,” Report of the Department of Antiquities Cyprus 2017 (Nicosia 2018): 1-45 cited by Professor Shaun W. Anthony of Ohio State Univesity on [https://twitter.com/shahanSean/status/1235951120939454464 Twitter.com] - Accessed 8 March 2021</ref>]]

Alexander in the Syriac legend is described as having horns on his head. An Ethiopic variation of the story refers to Alexander as "the two horns".<ref name="Budge" /> Coins depicting Alexander with ram horns on his head were first minted shortly after his death. By the 1<sup>st</sup> century BC, silver coins depicting Alexander with ram horns were used as the primary currency in Arabia. Imitation coins were issued by an Arab ruler named Abi'el who ruled in the south-eastern region of the Arabian Peninsula and other minting of these coins occurred throughout Arabia for another thousand years.<ref> "The impact of Alexander the Great’s coinage in E Arabia" at [http://web.archive.org/web/20040603181636/www.culture.gr/nm/presveis/Pages/museum/13/p1302.html culrute.gr].</ref> This connection of Alexander with two-horns was widely known across the region at the time.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 146|
And king Alexander bowed himself and did reverence, saying, "0 God, Lord of kings and judges, thou who settest up kings and destroyest their power, I know in my mind that thou hast exalted me above all kings, and thou hast '''made me horns upon my head''', wherewith I might thrust down the kingdoms of the world;<ref name="Budge"/>}}

===Established with Power===

At the beginning of the Syriac legend, Alexander says a prayer to God that he might be given power from heaven to rule over the kingdoms of the earth.  The Qur'anic story, speaking from the perspective of Allah, says that he has given Alexander power on earth.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 146|
'''Give me power from thy holy heavens that I may receive strength greater than [that of] the kingdoms of the world''' and that I may humble them, and I will magnify thy name, O Lord, for ever, and thy memorial shall be from everlasting to everlasting, and I will write the name of God in the charter of my kingdom, that there may be for Thee a memorial always.<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|84}}|Verily '''We established his power on earth''', and We gave him the ways and the means to all ends.}}

===Journey to the Fetid Sea===

The first destination for the hero in both the Syriac and Qur'anic stories is a place near the setting of the sun.  The Syriac legend identifies this location as Oceanus, a mythical sea believed to encircle a [[Flat Earth and the Quran|flat earth]].  In both accounts, the water is described as being muddy or fetid.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 145-147|
"As to the thing, my lord, which thy majesty (or thy greatness) desires to go and see, namely, upon what the heavens rest, and what surrounds the earth, the terrible seas which surround the world will not give thee a passage'; because there are eleven bright seas, on which the ships of men sail, and beyond these there is about ten miles of dry land, and beyond these ten miles '''there is the fetid sea''', Oceanus (the Ocean), which surrounds all creation. 

And they put ships to sea and sailed on the sea four months' and twelve days, and they arrived at the dry land beyond the eleven bright seas.<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|85|86}}|One (such) way he followed, until, when he reached the setting of the sun, he found it set in a spring of '''murky water''': Near it he found a People: We said: "O Zul-qarnain! (thou hast authority,) either to punish them, or to treat them with kindness."}} 

Dr. Kevin Van Bladel, professor of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, states in his comparison of the two stories, that the water at the place where the sun sets is 'fetid' in both texts, a coincidence of two uncommon synonyms (Syriac saryâ, Arabic hami'a).<ref name="VanBladel"> Van Bladel, Kevin, “The Alexander legend in the Qur‘an 18:83-102″, in [http://books.google.com/books?id=DbtkpgGn4CEC&pg=PA175 "The Qur’ān in Its Historical Context"], Ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, New York: Routledge, 2007.</ref> Similar connections can be found in Islamic poetry contemporary to the time of Muhammad. Muhammad ibn Ishāq ibn Yasār ibn Khiyār recorded many pre-Islamic Arabic poems in his [[Sirat Rasul Allah]] (Biography of Muhammad);  This included a poem about Dhul-Qarnayn that he claims was composed by a pre-Islamic king of ancient Yemen.  Here we can see that the sun sets into a pool of water that is described as being both muddy and fetid, a perfect linking of the two adjectives in both the Qur'anic and Syriac stories.

{{Quote|The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah|
Conquered kings thronged his court, East and west he ruled, yet he sought Knowledge true from a learned sage. He saw where the sun sinks from view, In a '''pool of mud and fetid slime'''.<ref> Ibn Ishaq; Guillaume, Alfred, ed. (2002) [?-767 AD]. "The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. pp. 138–140. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1.</ref>}}

===Punishment of Wrongdoers===

The Qur'anic story next gives the reader a cryptic speech by Dhul-Qarnayn where he says that "whoever does wrong" will be sent back to the Lord (i.e. killed). The Syriac legend gives a much fuller account; it explains that Alexander asked for criminals to be sent to the shore of the fetid sea to test a rumor that anyone who approaches the sea dies. When the prisoners drop dead, Alexander notes that it is good that those already "guilty of death should die". Not only is there a direct parallel between the stories, but the Syriac legend helps makes sense of the short and cryptic Qur'anic version of the story.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 147-148|
And Alexander and his troops encamped, and he sent and called to him the governor who was in the camp, and said to him, "Are there any men here guilty of death?" They said to him, "We have thirty and seven '''men in bonds who are guilty of death'''." And the king said to the governor, "Bring hither '''those evil doers'''." And they brought them, and the king commanded them and said, "Go ye to the shore of the fetid sea, and hammer in stakes that ships may be tied thereto, and prepare everything needful for a force about to cross the sea." And the men went, and came to the shore of the sea. Now Alexander thought within himself, "If it be true as they say, that everyone who comes near the fetid sea dies, '''it is better that these who are guilty of death should die'''," and when they had gone, and had arrived at the shore of the sea, '''they died instantly'''.<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|87}}|He said: "'''Whoever doth wrong, him shall we punish'''; then shall he be sent back to his Lord; and He will punish him with a punishment unheard-of (before).}}

===Sun Rises on People with No Cover===

After leaving the muddy sea, The Qur'an tells us that Dhul-Qarnayn travels to the east where the sun rises. The author then conveys an odd and cryptic detail that the people living there have "no covering protection against the sun"; however, it gives no further explanation as to what that means. Again, the Syriac legend not only has an expanded, parallel account but it helps clarify the Qur'anic story. The reader is told that the people who live near the location where the sun "enters the window of heaven" (i.e. rises above the flat earth) must seek cover because the sun is much closer to the ground and its rays burn the people and animals there.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 148|
So the whole camp mounted, and Alexander and his troops went up between the fetid sea and the bright sea '''to the place where the sun enters the window of heaven'''; for the sun is the servant of the Lord, and neither by night nor by day does he cease from his travelling. The place of his rising is over the sea, and the people who dwell there, when he is about to rise, flee away and hide themselves in the sea, that they be not burnt by his rays; and he passes through the midst of the heavens to the place where he enters the window of heaven; and wherever he passes there are terrible mountains, and those who dwell there have caves hollowed out in the rocks, and '''as soon as they see the sun passing [over them], men and birds flee away from before him and hide in the caves''', for rocks are rent by his blazing heat and fall down, and whether they be men or beasts, as soon as the stones touch them they are consumed.<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|89|90}}|Then followed he (another) way, Until, when '''he came to the rising of the sun''', he found it rising on a people for whom We had '''provided no covering protection against the sun'''. }}

===Travel to the Valley between Two Mountains===

On his final journey, the Qur'an tells us that Dhul-Qarnayn traveled to a valley between two mountains. The Syriac legend tells us that Alexander heads north and likewise arrives at a plain between mountains. Here he sets up his camp near a mountain pass.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 149|
And Alexander said, " Let us go forth by the way to the north "; and they came to the confines of the north, and entered Armenia and Adarbaijan and Inner Armenia And they crossed over the country of TurnAgios, and BethPardia, and Beth-Tekil, and Beth-Drubil, and Beth-Katarmen, and Beth-Gebul, and Beth-Zamrat Alexander passed through nil these places; and '''he went and passed mount Musas and entered a plain''' which is Bahi-Lebta, and '''he went and encamped by the gate of the great mountain.'''<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|92|93}}|Then followed he (another) way, Till, when '''he came between the two mountains''', he found upon their hither side a folk that scarce could understand a saying. }}

===Gog and Magog Spoil and Ravage the Land===
[[File:Gogmagogmap.JPG|right|thumb|200px|12<sup>th</sup> century map by the Muslim geographer Al-Idrisi (south up). "Yajooj" and "Majooj" (Gog and Magog) appear in Arabic script on the bottom-left edge of the Eurasian landmass, enclosed within dark mountains. Note that the earth is encircled by water that corresponds to the ocean at the end of the world in the Alexander Legend.]]

The Syriac legend then states that Alexander meets with people who live near the mountain pass.  These natives tell of a tribe, the Huns, who live beyond the pass. These Huns spoil and ravage the land and then return back to their lands on the other side of the mountain. The legend identifies the first two kings of this tribe as Gog and Magog, the exact same names used in the Qur'anic account.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, pp. 149-150, 152|
Alexander said, "This mountain is higher and more terrible than all the mountains which I have seen." The old men, the natives of the country, said to the king: "Yea, by your majesty, my lord the king, neither we nor our fathers have been able to march one step in it, and men do not ascend it either on that side or on this, for it is the boundary which God has set between us and the nations within it" Alexander said, "Who are the nations within this mountain upon which we are looking? "The natives of the land said, " They are the Huns." He said to them, " Who are their kings?" The old men. said: "'''Gog and Magog'''..."

Alexander said to the natives of that country," '''Have they come forth to spoil in your days?'''" The old men answered and said to the king: "May God establish thy kingdom and thy crown, my lord the king! These fortresses which have been overturned in our lands and in the lands of the Romans, have been overthrown by them; by them have these towers been uprooted; '''when they go forth to spoil, they ravage the land''' of the Romans and of the Persians, and then they enter their own territory."<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|94}}|They said: "O Zul-qarnain! the '''Gog and Magog (People) do great mischief on earth''': shall we then render thee tribute in order that thou mightest erect a barrier between us and them?"}}

===Build a Barrier===

After speaking with the people about Gog and Magog, Alexander says he will build a barrier (a wall or dam) between the people and the tribes that harass them. Both stories record Alexander proclaiming this in a speech. 

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 153|
When Alexander had heard what the old men said, he marveled greatly at the great sea which surrounded all creation; and Alexander said to his troops, " Do ye desire that we should do something wonderful in this land?" They said to him, "As thy majesty commands we will do." The king said, "'''Let us make a gate of brass and close up this breach'''."<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|95}}|He said: "(The power) in which my Lord has established me is better (than tribute): Help me therefore with strength (and labour): '''I will erect a strong barrier between you and them'''}}

===Made of Iron and Brass===

Another similarity between the two stories is that the wall will be made of both iron and brass.  Here the Qur'anic translators use different words for the second metal: "lead" (Yusif Ali), "copper" (Pickthall), "brass" (Shakir) but the connection with the Syriac legend is apparent.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 153|
And Alexander commanded and fetched three thousand smiths, workers in iron, and three thousand men, workers in brass And '''they put down brass and iron''', and kneaded it as a man kneads when he works clay. Then they brought it and made a gate, the length of which was twelve cubits and its breadth eight cubits. And '''he made a lower threshold from mountain to mountain''', the length of which was twelve cubits;<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|96}}|"'''Bring me blocks of iron'''." At length, when '''he had filled up the space between the two steep mountain-sides''', He said, "Blow (with your bellows)" Then, when he had made it (red) as fire, he said: "Bring me, that I may pour over it, '''molten lead [brass]'''."}}

===Cannot be Breached===

After constructing the barrier, the Syriac legend says that it is very difficult to penetrate and the Huns will not be able to dig under it.  A similar phrase is used in the Qur'an to convey that the barrier is very difficult to pass.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 153|
He fixed the gate and the bolts, and he placed nails of iron and beat them down one by the other, so that '''if the Huns came and dug out the rock which was under the threshold''' of iron, even if footmen were able to pass through, '''a horse with its rider would be unable to pass''', so long as the gate that was hammered down with bolts stood.<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|97}}|Thus were they made powerless to '''scale it or to dig through it'''}}

===Destroyed at the End of Times===

An often overlooked aspect of the story of Dhul-Qarnayn is that it ends with a prophetic prediction of the wall being destroyed and the tribes of Gog and Magog surging and destroying everything in their path. In particular, it notes that this will occur on the day of Judgement when the "trumpet is blown" and the people of the world are gathered together to account for their sins. The Syriac legend also ends with a similar prophecy that likewise occurs when the nations have been gathered together at the end of times.

{{Quote|The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version, p. 154|
And '''the Lord will gather together the kings and their hosts''' which are within this mountain, and they shall all be assembled at His beck, and shall come with their spears and swords, and shall stand behind the gate, and shall look up to the heavens, and shall call upon the name of the Lord,"saying, 'O Lord, open to us this gate.'  And the Lord shall send His sign from heaven and '''a voice shall call on this gate, and it shall be destroyed and fall''' at the beck of the Lord, and it shall not be opened by the key which I have made for it. And a troop shall go through this gate which I have made, and a full span shall be worn away from the lower threshold" by the hoofs of the horses which with their riders '''shall go forth to destroy the land by the command of the Lord''';<ref name="Budge"/>}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|98}}|
He said: "This is a mercy from my Lord: But when the promise of my Lord comes to pass, '''He will make it into dust'''; and the promise of my Lord is true." On that day We shall leave them to surge like waves on one another: the trumpet will be blown, and '''We shall collect them all together'''.}}

The connection with the destruction of the wall and the end of times is further explained in the classic Qur'anic [[tafsir]] by Ibn Kathir.

{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir, "The Barrier restrains Them, but It will be breached when the Hour draws nigh"|(We shall leave some of them to surge like waves) meaning mankind, on that day, the day when the barrier will be breached and these people (Ya'juj and Ma'juj) will come out surging over mankind to destroy their wealth and property.  As-Suddi said: "That is when they emerge upon the people." All of this will happen before the Day of Resurrection and after the Dajjal, as we will explain when discussing the Ayat:  (and As-Sur [the trumpet] will be blown.) As-Sur, as explained in the Hadith, is a horn that is blown into. The one who will blow into it is (the angel) Israfil, peace be upon him, as has been explained in the Hadith quoted at length above, and there are many Hadiths on this topic.<ref> Tafsir Ibn Kathir.  Ch 18: "The Barrier restrains Them, but It will be breached when the Hour draws nigh". Full text at [http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2700&Itemid=73 qtafsir.com] </ref>}}

===Views of Modern Scholars===

Van Bladel in his book sums up the relation between the Qur'an and the Syriac legend:

{{Quote|The Alexander legend in the Qur‘an 18:83-102, p. 182|
Thus, quite strikingly, almost every element of this short Qur'anic tale finds a more explicit and detailed counterpart in the Syriac Alexander Legend.  In both text the related events are given in precisely the same order.

As it is, the correspondences shown earlier are still so exact that it is obvious in comparison that the two texts are at least connected very closely.  They relate the same story in precisely the same order of events using many of the same particular details.<ref name="VanBladel"/>}}

==Relationship with the Syriac Legend==

The parallels between the Syriac Legend and the Qur'an detailed above are quite striking. As to the question of dependency, Van Bladel has argued that the Syriac Legend is a direct source for the Quranic account.<ref name="VanBladel"/> Tommaso Tesei concurs with van Bladel's thesis, though allows for the possibility that they share a common source.<ref name="Tesei2013">Tommaso Tesei (2013) [https://www.academia.edu/10863446/_The_prophecy_of_%E1%B8%8E%C5%AB_l_Qarnayn_Q_18_83_102_and_the_Origins_of_the_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81nic_Corpus_Miscellanea_arabica_2013_2014_273_90  The prophecy of Dhu-l-Qarnayn (Q 18:83-102) and the Origins of the Qurʾānic Corpus] Miscellanea arabica 2013–2014: 273-90</ref> He notes that, while the final part of the legend concerns Alexander's battles with the Persian king and is an allegory of the bloody conflict between Byzantines and Sasanids with a propaganda purpose to glorify Heraclius (important in dating its final redaction), it is clear that in the rest of the story, there are indeed multiple streams of earlier elements, which it shares with the Qur'an. Crucially, these appear in the same order in both versions. Tesei argues that while this sequencing could go back to a common source, he finds it more plausible that the Syriac legend originated the particular composition, agreeing with van Bladel's argument that Alexander's journeys are intended to form the shape of a cross, and adding his own hypothesis that the story originally involved a failed attempt to reach paradise, removed in order to better glorify Heraclius. The elements pre-dating both the Qur'an and Syriac legend by many centuries include folklore found in earlier Christian and Jewish writings. Parallels to the ancient Epic of Gilgamesh and the Biblical story of Gog and Magog can be clearly identified in the story as well.

===Epic of Gilgamesh===

One of the earliest and most influential stories, the Epic of Gilgamesh was written sometime before 2000 BCE. In one of the tablets of his many adventures, Gilgamesh travels far to the east, to the mountain passes at the ends of the earth. He slays mountain lions, bears and other wild animals. Eventually he comes to the twin peaks of Mount Mashu at the end of the earth, from where the sun rises. Here he finds a large gate, guarded by scorpion-people who protect the sun and forbidden anyone to enter through the gate without their permission.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/tab9.htm|title= Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet IX|publisher= Academy for Ancient Texts|author= Maureen Gallery Kovacs (trans.)|series= |date= I998|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancienttexts.org%2Flibrary%2Fmesopotamian%2Fgilgamesh%2Ftab9.htm&date=2013-11-23|deadurl=no}}</ref>

It is in this very ancient mythology, that we have the basic outline of the adventure found in the Qur'an and the Alexander legends: a powerful hero, who travels from west to east, the setting and rising of the sun, two mountains and a gate.

===Early Jewish Legends===

The Jewish historian Josephus (37-100 CE), records in his two books legendary stories of Alexander that were known to the Jews of the first century. In his first book, "The Antiquities of the Jews", he mentions that the tribes of Magog are called the Scythians by the Greeks. In his second book, "The Wars of the Jews", he further details that these people are held behind a wall of iron that has been built by Alexander the Great. In this legend, Josephus relates that Alexander allows the tribes of Magog to come out from behind the wall and create havoc in the land. Here is a very clear connection of Alexander to an iron gate and the tribes of Magog being prevented from plundering the land. This shows that local folklore already contained the basic backbone of the Alexander story almost six centuries before the story found in the Qur'an.

{{Quote|The Antiquities of the Jews, Book I, Ch6, v1|
'''Magog''' founded those that from him were named Magogites, but who are by the Greeks called '''Scythians'''.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2848/2848-h/2848-h.htm#link2HCH0006|title= The Antiquities of the Jews: Book I, Ch6, v1|publisher= Project Gutenberg|author= Flavius Josephus, William Whiston (trans.)|date= accessed November 24, 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F2848%2F2848-h%2F2848-h.htm%23link2HCH0006&date=2013-11-24|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}

{{Quote|The Wars Of The Jews, Book VII, Ch7, v4|
Now there was a nation of the Alans, which we have formerly mentioned some where as being '''Scythians''' and inhabiting at the lake Meotis. This nation about this time laid a design of falling upon Media, and the parts beyond it, in order to plunder them; with which intention they treated with the king of Hyrcania; for he was master of that '''passage which king Alexander [the Great] shut up with iron gates'''. This king gave them leave to come through them; so they came in great multitudes, and fell upon the Medes unexpectedly, and plundered their country.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/war-7.htm|title= The Wars Of The Jews: Book VII, Ch7, v4|publisher= Christian Classics Ethereal Library|author= Flavius Josephus, William Whiston (trans.)|date= accessed November 24, 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fj%2Fjosephus%2Fworks%2Fwar-7.htm&date=2013-11-24|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}

===Early Christian Legends===

As early as the 399 CE, local stories of Alexander building a wall against the Huns had made their way into Christian writings as well.  St. Jerome, an early church father, writes about rumors of attacks against Jerusalem by invaders from the north.  He refers to these invaders as Huns who live near the gate that was built by Alexander.

{{Quote| Letters of St. Jerome, Letter 77| For news came that the hordes of the Huns had poured forth all the way from Mæotis (they had their haunts between the icy Tanais and the rude Massagetæ; where '''the gates of Alexander keep back the wild peoples''' behind the Caucasus); and that, speeding here and there on their nimble-footed horses, they were filling all the world with panic and bloodshed.<ref>Translated by W.H. Fremantle, G. Lewis and W.G. Martley. From "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series", Vol. 6. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1893.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. <[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001077.htm Letters of St. Jerome: Letter 77] <small>([http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F3001077.htm&date=2013-11-24 archived])</small>>.</ref>}}

===Gog and Magog in the Bible===

The story of Gog and Magog being let loose at the end of the world, on Judgement Day, can be found in the Book of Revelation. We are told that they will swarm across the earth and surround the "camp of God's people" who have been gathered together in the "city he loves" (namely Jerusalem). This writing dates to the second half of the 1<sup>st</sup> century.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.amazon.com/Before-Jerusalem-Fell-Dating-Revelation/dp/0930464206/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1385273746&sr=8-1|title= Before Jerusalem Fell|publisher= Powder Springs, Georgia: American Vision|author= Kenneth Gentry|isbn= 0-930464-20-6|date= 1989|archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=6FAookts4MUC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false|title= The Book of Revelation|publisher= Cambridge: Eerdman's|author= Robert Mounce|pages=15-16|date= |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

{{Quote|Revelation 20:7-9|When the thousand years are over, Satan will be released from his prison and will go out to deceive the nations in the four corners of the earth—Gog and Magog—and to gather them for battle. In number they are like the sand on the seashore. They marched across the breadth of the earth and surrounded the camp of God’s people, the city he loves. But fire came down from heaven and devoured them.<ref name="NIV1">New International Version of the Bible.  Zondervan 1971. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2020&version=NIV Rev 20:7-19].</ref> }}

===Prophecy about Gog and Magog===
Tesei notes that Czeglédy has argued convincingly that a 6th century ex-eventu prophecy recorded by John of Ephesus (d. 586 CE) about the invasion of the Sabir Huns in 514-15 CE was incorporated into the Syriac legend as its first, ex-eventu prophecy of invasion by Gog and Magog (distinct from the second ex-eventu prophecy about the Khazars around 627 CE, which extends into a failed prognostication by the author, crucial to its dating).<ref name="Tesei2013" /> It is, then, possible that this is another element that could have formed part of a common source shared by the Syriac legend and Qur'anic story. However, Tesei notes that evidence is lacking to link at that earlier time the prophecy with the tales of Gog and Magog behind Alexander's wall, which were also in circulation in the 6th century, nor yet with the other elements forming the shared sequence between the Syriac and Qur'anic stories.

===Dating the Syriac Legend===

The Alexander Legend in its final redaction was composed by a Mesopotamian Christian probably in Amid or Edessa. It was written down in 629-630 CE after the victory of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius over the Sasanian king Khusrau Parvez. Dr. Reinink, a Near East philogist and scholar, highlights the political agenda of the legend which is clearly written as a piece of pro-Byzantine propaganda. Its purpose was probably to win the separated Syrian Christians back to a union with the church at Constantinople.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=PtxOXRlPMA0C|title= Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Chrisitan and Islamic Sources|publisher= BRILL|author= Ed. Emeri J. van Donzel, Andrea Barbara Schmidt|page= 18|date= 2010|archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

Stephen Shoemaker has discussed the arguments of Reinink, van Bladel and Tesei, but argues that "it would appear that in its current form the Legend almost certainly updates an older version of the Legend that was composed in the early sixth century". The hypothetical earlier version would incorporate the main elements of the story up to the first ex-eventu prophecy of the 514-515 CE Sabir Hun invasion mentioned above, which was circulating in the sixth century. Shoemaker states that "a clear majority" of scholars take this view, though Renink's view that the Legend represents a new composition of the 7th century "presently enjoys relative acceptance". Shoemaker notes that unlike Reinink, van Bladel at least attempts to explain the presence of the first prophecy, which holds no importance to the narrative (van Bladel suggests that it served as a verification for 7th century listeners to trust the later prophecies), though like Tesei, he is unconvinced in light of Czeglédy's findings mentioned above. For this and reasons of timing, he finds it most likely that the Quran depends on a 6th rather than 7th century version of the Legend.<ref>Stephen J. Shoemaker, [https://www.google.de/books/edition/The_Apocalypse_of_Empire/w9FwDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA79&printsec=frontcover The Apocalypse of Empire: Imperial Eschatology in Late Antiquity and Early Islam], University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018, pp. 79-86</ref>

===Dating the Qur'anic Verses===

According to the traditional Muslim narrative, Al-Kahf (The Cave) was generally revealed in Mecca, except verse 28 and verses 83-101 which were revealed in Medina.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://tanzil.net/pub/ebooks/History-of-Quran.pdf|title= The History of the Quran|publisher= Al-Tawheed|author= Allamah Abu Abd Allah al-Zanjani, Mahliqa Qara'i (trans.)|page=34|date= |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref> Based on this information, the story of Dhul-Qarnayn, contained in verses 83-101, would be dated to after the Hijra in June 622 CE and before Muhammed's death in June 632 CE; a more specific date is difficult to ascertain with any certainty from the Islamic narrative. Van Bladel dismisses the possibility that the Quran could be a source for the Syriac legend.<ref name="VanBladel" /> Since the community of Muslims in Mecca were far from well known outside of Arabia, the possibility of their story influencing Christians in Syria is extremely remote. The far more expansive Syriac work also contains no references to the Arabic phrases used in the Qur'anic account, which would be expected if the Syrian story was using that as its source. Tesei concurs with van Bladel's arguments here.<ref name="Tesei2013" />

===Spread of the Syriac Legend to Arabia===

The popularity of the Syriac legend of Alexander is evidenced by its inclusion in other works soon after its composition. The "Song of Alexander", composed a few years later but before the Arab conquest of Syria sometime between 630 CE and 636 CE. The Syriac apocalypse, "De Fine Munid" composed between 640 CE and 683 CE and the "Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius" composed around 692 CE.<ref name="VanBladel" /> Since the work was composed as a piece of propaganda, its intentional dissemination makes sense of its rapid adoption and popularity in the region. This would have included Christian Arabs of the Ghassanid.  It is even possible that early Muslim followers heard the story of the Syrian legend during their raids on Mu'ta on the borders of Syria around September 629 CE.<ref name="VanBladel" />

===Views of Modern Scholars===

It is clear that all the major elements of the Alexander story were in place by the 4<sup>th</sup> century, predating both the Qur'anic and the Syriac account by hundreds of years. Their reliance upon common sources for these elements is also clear. In effect, the story of Dhul-Qarnayn in the Qur'an is simply another example of the widespread inclusion of Alexander folklore into the stories and traditions of the religious groups in the Middle East.  Rebecca Edwards in a address to the American Philological Association in 2002 states:

{{Quote||Alexander's association with two horns and with the building of the gate against Gog and Magog occurs much earlier than the Quran and persists in the beliefs of all three of these religions Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The denial of Alexander's identity as Dhul-Qarnayn is the denial of a common heritage shared by the cultures which shape the modern world--both in the east and the west.<ref>Rebecca Edwards. "Two Horns, Three Religions. How Alexander the Great ended up in the Quran". American Philological Association, 133<sup>rd</sup> Annual Meeting Program (Philadelphia, January 5, 2002)</ref>}}

==Dhul-Qarnayn as Alexander in Islamic Sources==

While the Qur'an and Hadith never explicitly identify Dhul-Qarnayn as Alexander, a number of Islamic scholars and commentators have endorsed this view. This was especially true in the early centuries after the founding of Islam when the legends of Alexander were still widely known and popular. In more recent years, some prominent scholars have also supported the connection between Alexander and Dhul-Qarnayn of the Qur'an.

===Early Islamic Scholars===

The Sirat Rasul Allah of Ibn Ishaq, circa 761 CE, mentions that Dhul-Qarnayn was of Egyptian and Greek origins, a fairly good description of Alexander who came from Macedonia in Greece, conquered Egypt, named a city after himself in Egypt and declared himself a god there.

{{Quote|Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah|
A man who used to purvey stories of the foreigners, which were handed down among them, told me that Dhul-Qarnayn was an Egyptian whose name was Marzuban bin Mardhaba, the Greek.<ref>Ibn Ishaq; Guillaume, Alfred, ed. (2002).  "The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. pp. 138–140. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1.</ref>}}

Tafsir al-Jalalayn, a classical Sunni tafsir of the Qur'an, composed by Jalal ad-Din al-Mahalli in 1459 CE identifies Dhul-Qarnayn as Alexander.

{{Quote|Tafsir al-Jalalayn|And they, the Jews, question you concerning '''Dhū’l-Qarnayn, whose name was Alexander'''; he was not a prophet. Say: ‘I shall recite, relate, to you a mention, an account, of him’, of his affair.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=18&tAyahNo=83&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageID=2|title= Tafsir al-Jalalayn: Surah 18, Ayah 83|publisher= Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought|author=Jalal ad-Din al-Mahalli, Feras Hamza (trans.)|date= 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Faltafsir.com%2FTafasir.asp%3FtMadhNo%3D0%26tTafsirNo%3D74%26tSoraNo%3D18%26tAyahNo%3D83%26tDisplay%3Dyes%26UserProfile%3D0%26LanguageID%3D2&date=2013-11-24|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}

Another influential Tafsir author who endorsed the identify of Alexander is the Indian scholar Shah Waliullah (1763 CE).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=jbVWRp56XxsC|title= Al-Fawz al-Kabir fi Usul al-Tafsir|publisher= Islamic Book Trust|author= Shah Waliullah (1763)|date= 2013|page= 27|archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

===Modern Islamic Scholars===

One of the most prominent modern scholars to defend the fidelity between Dhul-Qarnayn and Alexander the Great is the famous Qur'anic translator Abdullah Yusuf Ali.  Yusuf Ali gives a detailed defense of the Alexander theory in the Appendix of his commentary on the Qur'an, including assertions that the Qur'an accurately depicts an historical account of Alexander and not a legendary one.

{{Quote|The Noble Quran's Commentary, appx. 6, p. 738. |Personally, '''I have not the least doubt that Dhu al Qarnayn is meant to be Alexander the Great''', the historic Alexander, and not the legendary Alexander, of whom more presently.   My first appointment after graduation was that of Lecturer in Greek history.   I have studied the details of Alexander's extraordinary personality in Greek historians as well as in modern writers, and have since visited most of the localities connected with his brief but brilliant career. Few readers of Quranic literature have had the same privilege of studying the details of his career.  It is one of the wonders of the Quran, that, spoken through an Ummi's (illiterate) mouth, it should contain so many incidental details which are absolutely true.<ref name="YusufAli"> Sheikh Abdullah Yusuf Ali, "The Noble Quran's Commentary", appx. 6, p. 738.</ref>}}

==Reconstructing the Historical Alexander==

While legendary accounts of Alexander's life dominated Europe and the Middle East for almost two thousands years, eventually more historical biographies about his life were unearthed. This included information about Alexander as a polytheist, Zeus worshiping pagan and insight into his personal and sexual preferences. Such historical facts about Alexander the Great became well known only after the Renaissance period (1300-1600 CE) when Greek documents from the 2<sup>nd</sup> century were rediscovered.  

These included the "Anabasis Alexandri" or "the Campaigns of Alexander" by Arrian.  It is generally considered the most important source on Alexander the Great. Written in the 2<sup>nd</sup> century, it gives a detailed history of Alexander's military complains and is based on early sources that are now lost. The other is the "Life of Alexander" and two orations "On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great" , by the Greek historian and biographer Plutarch of Chaeronea.  This work detailed much of Alexander's personal life, desires, motivations, and other personal insights.<ref name="Plutarch">Plutarch (1919). Perrin, Bernadotte, ed. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0243 "Plutarch, Alexander"]. Perseus Project. Retrieved December 6, 2011.</ref>

===Polytheism===

Alexander the Great was a polytheist who believed in the pantheon of Greek gods, the dominant religious belief at the time of the 4<sup>th</sup> century BCE in Macedon Greece and throughout most of the Mediterranean. When his army first invaded Asia, Alexander dedicated the lands of his conquests to the gods. He visited the Oracle at Delphi and sought prophecies about his future.  After his death, Alexander apparently left instructions in his will for a monumental temple to Athena be built at Troy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC |title= A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|publisher= John Wiley & Sons|author= Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington|date= 2010|isbn=1-4051-7936-8|archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

===Son of Zeus-Ammon===
[[File:Zeus Ammon.png|right|thumb|200px|A terracotta cast of Zeus Ammon with ram horns. 1st century CE.  Alexander is depicted with similar ram horns in coins as a reference to his deity.]]
Alexander appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Great-Hellenistic-Peter-Green/dp/0753824132/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1385374702&sr=8-1|title= Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age|publisher= London: Phoenix|author=  Peter Green|date= August 7, 2008|isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9|archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref> Olympias, his mother, always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,<ref name="Plutarch" /> a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa in Libya.<ref name="Plutarch" /> Shortly after his visit to the oracle, Alexander began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon and often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father.  This god, an amalgamation of both the Greek god Zeus and the Egyptian god Ammon was often depicted with ram horns on his head. Subsequent currency depicted Alexander adorned with similar rams horn as a symbol of his divinity.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.amazon.com/Legend-Alexander-Great-Greek-Roman/dp/0415394511/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1385374897&sr=8-1|title= The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins|publisher= Routledge|author= Karsten Dahmen|date=  February 23, 2007|isbn=0-415-39451-1|archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

===Personal Relationships and Sex Life===

Alexander had two wives : Roxana, daughter of a Greek nobleman, and Stateira II, a Persian princess and daughter of Darius III of Persia. He fathered at least two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon with Roxana and Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine.<ref name="Plutarch" /> Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. Alexander may have been bisexual, and while no ancient sources state that Alexander had homosexual relationships, many historians have speculated that Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion, his life long friend and companion, was of a romantic nature.<ref>Ogden, Daniel (2009). "Alexander's Sex Life". In Heckel, Alice; Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Great-A-New-History/dp/1405130822 "Alexander the Great: A New History"]. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-3082-2.</ref>

==Modern Views and Controversies==
===Turning-point against Alexander as Dhul-Qarnayn===

In the first few centuries after the founding of Islam, there was little controversy in identifying Dhul-Qarnayn as Alexander. Alexander's deeds and exploits were almost universally admired.  However this slowly changed after the Renaissance in the 16<sup>th</sup> century when proper archaeological and historical methods were first applied to the life of Alexander the Great.

Once an accurate picture of the historical Alexander emerged, Christians and Jews easily discarded the legends of Alexander as a believing king.  Since these accounts were not present in the Bible, rejecting Alexander as a Greek pagan held no theological consequences for them.  Muslims, on the other hand, are forced to defend these accounts because the stories found their way into the Qur'an.  While some Muslims have embraced Alexander and rejected modern scholarship around his historical identify,<ref>A brief defense of Alexander against Cyrus by a Muslim apologist can be viewed [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.answering-christianity.com%2Fking_cyrus.htm&date=2013-11-25 here].</ref> most apologists have gone the other way and decided to accept that Alexander was a pagan but reject his association with Dhul-Qarnayn.

===Rejection of Alexander===

Since most early Muslim scholars and commentators believed that Dhul-Qarnayn was Alexander, any defense of another theory is first obligated to state why Alexander should be rejected from consideration.<ref name="Azad" /> Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, one of the first to advance the theory of Cyrus, gives a typical justification for his rejection of Alexander by appealing to the historical man as an unrighteous polytheist:

{{Quote|Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation: (1880 - 1960), p. 32|When treating the Dhul-Qarnayn story, Azad beings by setting forth that it follows from verse 82/83 that the hero's epithet was familiar to the Jews, being an expression used by the questioners.  Then, he must have been a righteous (see verse 86/87) and godly (see verses 87/88, 94/95 and 97/98) sovereign.  In other words, he cannot represent Alexander the Great: "That man was neither godly, nor righteous, nor generous towards subjected nations; moreover, he did not build a wall"<ref name="Azad"/>}}

The apologist insists that the only possible connection to Alexander must be to the historical man. On this basis, it is easy to agree that the historical Alexander is not portrayed in the Qur'anic story, as he does not fit the description at all. However, the legendary Alexander is a perfect fit. He is portrayed as a godly and righteous man, he shows generosity to the people harassed by the Huns, and he builds a wall of iron and brass. While these legendary stories were popular in the 7<sup>th</sup> century, they are virtually unknown outside of academic circles today. Maulana Azad simply ignores these facts and never considers the possibility that these verses are about a legendary figure and not the Alexander of history.

===Cyrus the Great===
Recent historical and archaeological evidence clearly points to the real Alexander of Macedon as a polytheistic pagan who fashioned himself after Greek and Egyptian gods. The more recent questions about Alexander's sexuality and personal relationships also raises serious problems for anyone who believes he was a follower of Islam.  Based on this information, some Islamic apologists and theologians have constructed alternative theories to the identity of Dhul-Qarnayn.  The most prominent alternative theory among modern apologists is that Dhul-Qarnayn was Cyrus the Great of Persia. This theory has been advanced by  Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi,<ref name="Maududi">{{cite web|url= http://www.islamicstudies.info/result.php?sura=18&verse=83|title= Tafsir Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an|publisher= |series= Surah 18 Ayah 83|author= Maududi|date= 1972|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamicstudies.info%2Fresult.php%3Fsura%3D18%26verse%3D83&date=2013-11-22|deadurl=no}}</ref> Maulana Abul Kalam Azad,<ref name="Azad"> Baljon , Johannes Marinus Simon. [http://books.google.com/books?id=IOEUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA33 "Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation: (1880 - 1960)"]. pp. 32-33. 1961.  Relates a typical defense by Azad of the Cyrus theory by explaining first why Alexander should be rejected based on the historical Alexander and not the legendary one.</ref> Allameh Tabatabaei,<ref>Allameh Tabatabae. Tafsir al-Mizan Vol 26 </ref> and Naser Makarem Shirazi.<ref>Naser Makarem Shirazi. Bargozideh Tafseer-i Nemuneh, Vol 3, p. 69</ref>

It is important to note that these rejections of Alexander as Dhul-Qarnayn are primarily motivated by theological concerns and are not based on any convincing evidence. As we shall see, the claims of Cyrus the Great being Dhul-Qarnayn are far weaker than the obvious connection to the legendary stories of Alexander. Proponents of this theory, however, pre-suppose that the Qur'an is relaying an accurate, historical story and thus never take into consideration the possibility that the story is based on myth and folklore.

====Two Horns====
[[File:Cyrushorns.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sketch of a relief of Cyrus.]]
In order to connect Cyrus to the epithet Dhul-Qarnayn (i.e. man with two-horns), proponents of this theory have pointed to a relief found on a doorway pillar near the tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae, Iran.  In these depictions, a set of horns can be seen as part of an Egyptian [[w:Hemhem crown|Hemhem]] head dress worn by a winged figure. Some scholars believe this to be a depiction of Cyrus, whose name was once inscribed at the top of the monument above the pillar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mallowan |first1=Max |last2= |first2= |date=1972 |title=“Cyrus the Great (558-529 B.C.). |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4300460 |journal=Iran |volume= |issue=10 |pages=1-17 |doi=10.2307/4300460 |access-date=8 March 2021}}</ref> Others note that the complex also once included human-headed winged bulls with crowns, and regard this as a protective doorway figure, inspired by Assyrian winged genii, and the words to be a "foundation inscription", also visible in two of the other palaces there.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/pasargadae |title=PASARGADAE |last=Stronach |first=David |date=2009 |website=Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition |publisher=Encyclopædia Iranica |access-date=8 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/herzfeld-ernst-ii |title=HERZFELD, ERNST ii. HERZFELD AND PASARGADAE  |last=Stronach |first=David |date=2003 |website=Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition |publisher=Encyclopædia Iranica |access-date=8 March 2021}}</ref> We have no other physical engravings or any other archaeological evidence that connects Cyrus with the epithet "two horns".

====Religious practices of Cyrus====
There is some uncertainty about the personal religious beliefs of Cyrus, though he was widely praised for religious tolerance. Supporters of the Cyrus theory claim he followed Zoroastrianism, which they also claim is monotheistic. However, the Encyclopedia Iranica in its online article on Cyrus, in a section on his religious policies, notes the following:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/cyrus-iiI|title=CYRUS iii. Cyrus II The Great|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |website=iranicaonline.org}}</ref>

* Babylonian texts record that Cyrus "restored the statues of the Babylonian gods to their sanctuaries"	
* In a temple in Uruk he called himself "caretaker of the temples of Esagila and Ezida," respectively the sanctuaries of Marduk in Babylon and Nabû in Borsippa
* In another inscription, from Ur, he boasted that "the great gods have delivered all the lands into my hands"
* On the Cyrus cylinder he claimed that the god Marduk had ordered him to become ruler of the whole world and to treat the Babylonians with justice
* According to the same text, the idols that Nabonidus had brought to Babylon from various other Babylonian cities were reinstalled in their former sanctuaries, as were the statues of alien gods from Susa and the cities of northern Mesopotamia. The ruined temples of Babylonia, Elam, and what had been Assyria were reconstructed.
	
	
A translation of the Cyrus Cylinder by Irvin Finkel of the British Museum includes the following lines:
	
	
{{Quote|Cyrus Cylinder translated by Irvin Finkel<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/166/the-cyrus-cylinder/ |title=The Cyrus Cylinder |last=Simonin |first=Antoine |publisher=worldhistory.org |date=2012 |website=worldhistory.org}}</ref>|"Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced at [my good] deeds [...] From [Shuanna] I sent back to their places to the city of Ashur and Susa,
	
Akkad, the land of Eshnunna, the city of Zamban, the city of Meturnu, Der, as far as the border of the land of Guti - the sanctuaries across the river Tigris - whose shrines had earlier become dilapidated, the gods who lived therein, and made permanent sanctuaries for them. [...] I collected together all of their people and returned them to their settlements, and the gods of the land of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus – to the fury of the lord of the gods – had brought into Shuanna, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I returned them unharmed to their cells, in the sanctuaries that make them happy. May all the gods that I returned to their sanctuaries, every day before Bel and Nabu, ask for a long life for me, and mention my good deeds, and say to Marduk, my lord, this: 'Cyrus, the king who fears you [...] May Marduk, the great lord, present to me as a gift a long life and the fullness of age"}}

====Questions from the People of the Book====

Another attempt to connect Cyrus to Dhul-Qarnayn comes from an analysis of the events that prompted the revelation of the Qur'anic story in the first place. The story begins in verse 83 by stating that someone has asked Muhammad about the story of Dhul-Qarnayn:

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|83}}|'''They ask thee''' concerning Zul-qarnain. Say, "I will rehearse to you something of his story."}}

The "they" in question is often identified as Jews, or sometimes generally as the [[People of the Book|People of the Book]], living near Mecca who use the question as a test of Muhammad's prophet-hood

{{Quote|The Meaning of the Qur'an, Introduction to Chapter 18|This Surah was sent down in answer to the three questions which the mushriks of Makkah, in consultation with the people of the Book, had put to the Holy Prophet in order to test him. These were: (1) Who were "the Sleepers of the Cave"? (2) What is the real story of Khidr? and (3) What do you know about Dhul-Qarnayn? As these three questions and the stories involved concerned the history of the Christians and the Jews, and were unknown in Hijaz, a choice of these was made to test whether the Holy Prophet possessed any source of the knowledge of the hidden and unseen things.<ref name="Maududi18">{{cite web|url= http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/maududi/introductions/mau-18.php|title= Tafsir Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an|publisher= |author= Maududi|date= 1972 |series= Introduction to Chapter 18|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usc.edu%2Forg%2Fcmje%2Freligious-texts%2Fmaududi%2Fintroductions%2Fmau-18.php&date=2013-11-22|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}

Some Apologists argue that the identity of Dhul-Qarnayn must have been well known to the Jews and should therefore be found in the Bible. However, no justification is ever given as to why only the Bible is considered and not other literature used by Jews and Christians of the 7<sup>th</sup> century.  This includes the Talmud, apocryphal books, and other non-canonical writings. In fact, this very account refers to another non-canonical story, [[Seven Sleepers of Ephesus in the Quran|the Sleepers of the Cave]], which is a 5<sup>th</sup> century legend popular in both Syria and Arabia. In point of fact the Alexander Romance was well known to both Christian and Jewish audiences in late antiquity, so the assumption that the story is well known to the audience of this verse once again points to the Alexander Romance. 

Another detail about this account is that the audience of the verse is not asked to simply identify Dhul-Qarnayn. If that were the case, the answer would have been something such as "he is Alexander" or "he is Cyrus". The speaker in the verse actually asks the audience to relate a ''story'' about Dhul-Qarnayn. This once again points to a well known narrative about Dhul-Qarnayn, the Alexander Romance.  In order for the audience to know the "right" answer to that question, they must already know the details of this story. This story does not appear anywhere in the Bible; but it does occur, point-by-point and detail-by-detail in the Alexander legend. Therefore, they must be using the Alexander legend as their source for the "right" answer.

An argument based on this verse ignores the wide range of stories in circulation by Jews and Christians of the 7<sup>th</sup> century. It projects a modern understanding of the cannon of scripture back upon the people of that time. The Alexander legends were incorporated into the writings and theology of the Jews and Christians in Syria and Arabia, thus it is easy to see why the speaker in the verse expects a well-rehearsed answer. 

====Reference in the Bible====

Another point brought up in defense of the Cyrus thesis is a passage from the Bible, Daniel 8 that mentions a ram with two horns:

{{Quote|Daniel 8:2-7|In my vision I saw myself in the citadel of Susa in the province of Elam; in the vision I was beside the Ulai Canal. I looked up, and there before me was '''a ram with two horns''', standing beside the canal, and the horns were long. '''One of the horns was longer than the other''' but grew up later. I watched the ram as it charged toward the west and the north and the south. No animal could stand against it, and none could rescue from its power. It did as it pleased and became great. As I was thinking about this, suddenly '''a goat with a prominent horn between its eyes came from the west''', crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. It came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at it in great rage. I saw it attack the ram furiously, striking the ram and shattering its two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against it; the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled on it, and none could rescue the ram from its power.<ref>New International Version of the Bible. Zondervan 1971. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Daniel%208:2-7&version=NIV Dan 8:2-7].</ref>}}

The meaning of this prophetic vision is explained a few verses later; the identities of the two-horned ram and the one-horned goat are given:

{{Quote|Daniel 8:19-21|He said: “I am going to tell you what will happen later in the time of wrath, because the vision concerns the appointed time of the end.  '''The two-horned ram that you saw represents the kings of Media and Persia'''. The shaggy '''goat is the king of Greece''', and the large horn between its eyes is the first king.}}

On the one hand, the two-horned ram is associated with Persia, and it conquering foes to the west, north, and south is a reference to Cyrus leading Persia to become a great power in the region. However, linking Cyrus explicitly to both of the "two horns" is problematic. First, the author of Daniel clearly says that the ram represents two kings and not only one king. The implication is that Persia is the longer and newer of the two horns, since Persia was more powerful and rose in ascension later than Media. The horn was a common metaphor for rulers or kings in the Middle East, so this imagery is not unique to Persian kings or Cyrus the Great.  The clear explanation given in the text is that the ram represents the Persia-Media empire in general and not Cyrus in particular. Since the ram was considered a symbol of Persia, this is not a unique depiction.<ref name="Guzik">Guzik, David. "[http://www.studylight.org/com/guz/view.cgi?book=da&chapter=008 Commentary on Daniel 8:1]". "David Guzik's Commentaries on the Bible". 1997-2003 <small>([http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.studylight.org%2Fcom%2Fguz%2Fview.cgi%3Fbook%3Dda%26chapter%3D008&date=2013-11-25 archived])</small>.</ref>

Another problem with identifying Cyrus as the ram is that the ram is defeated and disgraced by the goat. It is well known that Cyrus was responsible for freeing the Jews from slavery in Babylon<ref>Ezra 1:1-2</ref> and he is always portrayed favorably in the Bible. In the Book of Isaiah, Cyrus is even called God's anointed <ref>Isaiah 45:1</ref> which is the same word used for Messiah or Savior. However, in this prophetic vision, the goat defeats the ram and tramples it, which is completely at odds with how Cyrus is portrayed throughout the rest of Jewish scripture. Again, this clearly shows that the Ram represents Persia as a whole and not Cyrus as an individual.  

We must also consider that Cyrus is mentioned explicitly by name 23 times<ref> Chron 36:22-33, Ezra 1:1-8, Ezra 3:7, Ezra 4:3-5, Ezra 5:13-17, Ezra 6:3,14, Isaiah 44:28, Isaiah 45:1,13, Daniel 1:21, Daniel 6:28, Daniel 10:1</ref> in the Bible including other parts of the Book of Daniel; yet he is never given the epitaph of "Two Horns". If the Jews knew Cyrus by this epitaph then one should expect to see it mentioned in at least one of these verses. Considering that Alexander is said to have two horns in the Alexander legend, this lack of direct reference to Cyrus further weakens this theory.

The horn on the goat is considered by many to be a reference to Alexander the Great. The horn is called "the king of Greece" that comes form the west and charges to the east destroying everything in its path; a basic summary of Alexander's conquest of the Persians. Later in the chapter, we are told that the horn is broken (a reference to Alexander's death) and four horns appear in its place (a reference to the four rulers that divided up Alexander's kingdom).<ref name="Guzik" /> This again provides further evidence that the ram is not Cyrus, as Alexander lived three centuries after Cyrus and the two never fought each other on the battle field.

====Building a Wall====

We have no evidence that Cyrus the Great built large walls or was famous for such deeds. In his commentary, Maududi all but admits as much:

{{Quote|Tafhim al-Qur'an, Introduction to Chapter 18|As regards Gog and Magog, it has been nearly established that they were the wild tribes of Central Asia who were known by different names: Tartars, Mongols, Huns and Scythians, who 'had been making inroads on settled kingdoms and empires from very ancient times. It is also known that strong bulwarks had been built in southern regions of Caucasia, though '''it has not been as yet historically established that these were built by Cyrus'''.<ref name="Maududi18"></ref>}}

When we compare this to the legendary version of Alexander, who not only built a wall against Gog and Magog but made it of iron and bronze, we have the final piece of evidence that the Legendary Alexander is the person identified as Dhul-Qarnayn in the Qur'an and not Cyrus.

==Historicity of the Story==

As for the story itself, either in the Romance or in the Qur'an, it would seem to be almost entirely legendary. Besides the fact that Alexander was not a Christian, Muslim, or "believer" of any type all of the adventures of the Romance have no basis in the historical sources available on Alexander. The trope about Alexander damming up Gog and Magog till the end of the world is clearly mythical, feeding into established Judeao-Christian tropes on the end of the world, and has no basis in history or archaeology as there is no giant iron wall anywhere on the earth which is containing an entire nation of people. The very existence of such a wall for the past 2300 years would defy all of logic and science as it is known, and in any event would have been spotted by modern satellite technology, which it has not been. 

===Historical Claims in the Hadith===

The historical nature of the story in the Islamic narrative is affirmed by the following Sahih Hadith by Bukhari which relates that Muhammad viewed this wall (here called a dam) holding back Gog and Magog as a real structure that was facing immanent demise. In this account, he also reiterates that the wall's destruction will bring about death and destruction of the land when the tribes held behind it are let loose.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|9|88|249}}|Narrated Zainab bint Jahsh:

That one day Allah's Apostle entered upon her in a state of fear and said, "None has the right to be worshipped but Allah! Woe to the Arabs from the Great evil that has approached (them). Today a hole has been opened in the dam of Gog and Magog like this." The Prophet made a circle with his index finger and thumb. Zainab bint Jahsh added: I said, "O Alllah's Apostle! Shall we be destroyed though there will be righteous people among us?" The Prophet said, "Yes, if the (number) of evil (persons) increased."}}

===Great Wall of Gorgan===

The Great Wall of Gorgan is sometimes offered as a possible candidate for the wall built by Dhul-Qarnayn. Made of clay from the local soil, the wall is called the Red Snake due to the color of its bricks. The wall is 195 km (121 mi) long and interspersed with forts. It covers an area between the Caspian Sea and the mountains of northeastern Iran. Dr. Kiani, who led an archaeological team in 1971, believed that the wall was built during the Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE), and that it was restored during the Sassanid era (3<sup>rd</sup> to 7<sup>th</sup> century CE).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.shca.ed.ac.uk/staff/academic/esauer/pubs/iranian_walls.pdf|title= The enigma of the red snake: revealing one of the world’s greatest frontier walls|publisher= Current World Archaeology|series= No. 27|pages= 12-22|author= Omrani Rekavandi, H., Sauer, E., Wilkinson, T. & Nokandeh, J. (2008)|date=February/March 2008 |archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shca.ed.ac.uk%2Fstaff%2Facademic%2Fesauer%2Fpubs%2Firanian_walls.pdf&date=2013-11-25|deadurl=no}}</ref>

This wall cannot be same as the one described in the story of Dhul-Qarnayn for a number of reasons. First, it is made of bricks not iron and brass. It also does not cover an area between two mountains. The story in the Qur'an says that the wall built by Dhul-Qarnayn holds back a tribe but this wall in northern Iran is not holding back anyone; it is in a state of disrepair.  The Qur'an also says the wall of iron will not be destroyed until the Day of Judgement; if that is true, then this cannot be the wall described in Surat 18 unless the prophecy has failed. Finally, even its earliest dating of 247 BC puts it almost three centuries after the reign of Cyrus the Great (576–530 BC) and almost a century after Alexander the Great (356–323 BC).

===Caspian Gates of Derbent===

Derbent, a city on the other side of the Caspian Sea from the Great Wall of Gorgon is located just north of the Azerbaijani border. Historically, it occupied one of the few passages through the Caucus mountains and it has often been identified with the word 'gate'. Fortresses and walls have been built at this location probably dating back thousands of years. The historical Caspian Gates were not built until the reign of Khosrau I in the 6<sup>th</sup> century, long after Alexander, but they likely were attributed to him in the following centuries. The immense wall had a height of up to twenty meters and a thickness of about 3 meters when it was in use.

This wall cannot be the same as the one in the Qur'an because it is not built between two mountains. The walls near Derbent were built with the Caspian sea as one border. In his comments on Derbent, Yusuf Ali mentions, that "there is no iron gate there now, but there was one in the seventh century, when the Chinese traveler Hiouen Tsiang saw it on his journey to India. He saw two folding gates cased with iron hung with bells".<ref name="YusufAli" /> Again, if this gate is the same as the one in the Qur'anic story thenthe revelation of the gate holding back Gog and Magog must have failed since they did not rampage over the nations nor bring about judgement day. Additionally, the solitary claim of a single eye witness from the 7<sup>th</sup> century is suspect at best. One should expect a massive structure would have left copious amounts of archaeological evidence, but rather of Alexander of the Two-Horns and his Great Wall all that is to be found are legends and folktales.

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Category:Dhul-Qarnayn|Dhul-Qarnayn}}

{{Hub4|Cosmology|Cosmology}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Dhul-Qarnayn]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Christian tradition]]