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Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam: Difference between revisions
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Monotheist inscriptions, most likely Christian, have further been found in NorthWest of Arabia, in the localities of alʿArniyyāt and Umm Jadhāyidh, in Saudi Arabia, northwest from Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ (ancient Hegra) and Al-Jawf - the localities lie a bit over 500km via road from Medina, which as Lindstedt notes, is a similar distance of the 450km from Mecca to Medina.<ref>Ibid. pp. 108-109</ref> Jewish presence was also recorded as being established across the Hijaz centuries before Islam, with inscriptions from 230ce in Tayma stating a Jew was the 'headman' of the town, and similarly from Hegra and Dedan, including in Nabatean Arabic, and similar one's dated to 356–367ce; of which Hoyland remarks, the two inscriptions “are very important texts for north Arabian Jewry, for they imply that some of them at least were members of the elite of this society. Since the texts are separated by more than 150 years, we can also assume some stability for this office."<ref>Ibid. pp. 60</ref> | Monotheist inscriptions, most likely Christian, have further been found in NorthWest of Arabia, in the localities of alʿArniyyāt and Umm Jadhāyidh, in Saudi Arabia, northwest from Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ (ancient Hegra) and Al-Jawf - the localities lie a bit over 500km via road from Medina, which as Lindstedt notes, is a similar distance of the 450km from Mecca to Medina.<ref>Ibid. pp. 108-109</ref> Jewish presence was also recorded as being established across the Hijaz centuries before Islam, with inscriptions from 230ce in Tayma stating a Jew was the 'headman' of the town, and similarly from Hegra and Dedan, including in Nabatean Arabic, and similar one's dated to 356–367ce; of which Hoyland remarks, the two inscriptions “are very important texts for north Arabian Jewry, for they imply that some of them at least were members of the elite of this society. Since the texts are separated by more than 150 years, we can also assume some stability for this office."<ref>Ibid. pp. 60</ref> | ||
Lindstedt (2023) notes that in all probability the majority of inhabitants of Arabia were Jews/Christians,<ref>Ibid. pp. 322</ref> with the majority in the north Christians, and the majority in the south Jewish.<ref>Ibid. pp. 323.</ref> It should also be noted that some later, Islamic-era writers (such as historians, commentators and poets) also identified a number of place names in and around Mecca that suggest that there were Christians living in or visiting Mecca such as for pilgrimage.<ref>Ibid. pp. 114-115</ref> For example, al-Azraqī (d. 837 ce) notes that there was a maqbarat al-naṣārā, “graveyard of the Christians,” in Mecca (without qualifying it further); Establishing the date and existence of this graveyard is difficult, but it is difficult to know what motivation the Muslim authors might have had for forging such information (as it goes so against Muslim traditions that paint Mecca as a pagan city).<ref>Ibid. pp. 114-115</ref> | |||
It should also be noted that some later, Islamic-era writers (such as historians, commentators and poets) also identified a number of place names in and around Mecca that suggest that there were Christians living in or visiting Mecca such as for pilgrimage.<ref>Ibid. pp. 114-115</ref> For example, al-Azraqī (d. 837 ce) notes that there was a maqbarat al-naṣārā, “graveyard of the Christians,” in Mecca (without qualifying it further); Establishing the date and existence of this graveyard is difficult, but it is difficult to know what motivation the Muslim authors might have had for forging such information (as it goes so against Muslim traditions that paint Mecca as a pagan city).<ref>Ibid. pp. 114-115</ref> | |||
To the South lay the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom Himyarite Kingdom] (centered in modern-day Yemen), in which Christianity and Judaism gained large footholds since the 4th century,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Himyar Himyar Britannica Entry]''. People. People's of Asia. Geography & Travel. Britannica. </ref> with rulers converting.<ref>Christian Julien Robin, "Arabia and Ethiopia," in Scott Johnson (ed.) ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA289&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity]'', Oxford University Press 2012 pp.247–333, p.279 | To the South lay the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom Himyarite Kingdom] (centered in modern-day Yemen), in which Christianity and Judaism gained large footholds since the 4th century,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Himyar Himyar Britannica Entry]''. People. People's of Asia. Geography & Travel. Britannica. </ref> with rulers converting.<ref>Christian Julien Robin, "Arabia and Ethiopia," in Scott Johnson (ed.) ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA289&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity]'', Oxford University Press 2012 pp.247–333, p.279 | ||
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Fisher, Greg. Arabs and Empires before Islam (p. 129-130). OUP Oxford. | Fisher, Greg. Arabs and Empires before Islam (p. 129-130). OUP Oxford. | ||
''If one takes into account that no known inscription contemporary to this period displays an orientation favourable to Christianity, one can conclude that the H ˙ imyarite rulers had founded a new religion inspired from Judaism, called ‘Rah˙mānism’ by A. F. L. Beeston, although the term ‘Judaeo-Monotheism’ is preferable. This new religion formalized a type of belief in Judaism seen elsewhere in the Mediterranean world, whose followers might be called ‘fearers of God’ (metuentes and theosebeis).7 It is relevant to note that one H ˙ imyarite inscription clearly reflects this notion, asking that ‘God, Lord of the Sky and the Earth, grants | fear (s ˙ bs¹, probably a borrowing from Greek sebas) of His Name’ (see 3.5).'' </ref> Which was later conquered by the Christian Kingdom of Aksum | ''If one takes into account that no known inscription contemporary to this period displays an orientation favourable to Christianity, one can conclude that the H ˙ imyarite rulers had founded a new religion inspired from Judaism, called ‘Rah˙mānism’ by A. F. L. Beeston, although the term ‘Judaeo-Monotheism’ is preferable. This new religion formalized a type of belief in Judaism seen elsewhere in the Mediterranean world, whose followers might be called ‘fearers of God’ (metuentes and theosebeis).7 It is relevant to note that one H ˙ imyarite inscription clearly reflects this notion, asking that ‘God, Lord of the Sky and the Earth, grants | fear (s ˙ bs¹, probably a borrowing from Greek sebas) of His Name’ (see 3.5).'' </ref> Which was later conquered by the Christian Kingdom of Aksum/Axum (based in modern-day Ethiopian, Eritrean, Djiboutian and Sudanese Kingdom, which lay to the West of Arabia across the red sea and also exerted imperial force into the Arabian peninsula in the centuries preceding Islam)<ref>Bowersock, G.W.. ''The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam (Emblems of Antiquity)''. Oxford University Press.</ref> in the 6th century, spreading their influence until the Persians invaded in the latter half of the century.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksum-ancient-kingdom-Africa Aksum] | ancient kingdom, Africa | Historical Places | Geography & Travel. Britannica Entry</ref> Furthermore, as El-Badawi (2024) records "there is evidence from the Talmud, possibly dating to ca. 400 CE, that priests expelled by Josiah’s purging of the temple fled Jerusalem for Arabia. They reportedly settled among the Ishmaelites and reached as far as Hadramaut in South Arabia."<ref>El-Badawi, Emran. ''Female Divinity in the Qur’an: In Conversation with the Bible and the Ancient Near East (p. 185).'' Springer Nature Switzerland. Kindle Edition.</ref> | ||
As alluded to, regardless of tracing exact terms, academic scholarship has long recognised the penetration of Judeo-Christian Monotheism into the Arabian peninsula and among Arab tribes long before Islam. These would have provided both the stories and general concepts to the Hijaz, whether through Christian and Jewish tribes living side-by-side with the Quran's initial community, or simply through travellers telling stories and/or proselytizing, the movement of slaves who knew them, trade and commerce, pilgrimage etc. | As alluded to, regardless of tracing exact terms, academic scholarship has long recognised the penetration of Judeo-Christian Monotheism into the Arabian peninsula and among Arab tribes long before Islam. These would have provided both the stories and general concepts to the Hijaz, whether through Christian and Jewish tribes living side-by-side with the Quran's initial community, or simply through travellers telling stories and/or proselytizing, the movement of slaves who knew them, trade and commerce, pilgrimage etc. | ||
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=== Islamic Prophet Narratives === | === Islamic Prophet Narratives === | ||
As many Islamic scholars with a variety of views on the religions' origins, for example | As many Islamic scholars with a variety of views on the religions' origins, for example Nicolai Sinai,<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction (The New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys) (p. 105) (Kindle Edition). Edinburgh University Press. | ||
'' | ''Such an allusive invocation of Biblical figures and narratives characterises the Qur’an throughout: familiarity with a broad body of Biblical and Biblically inspired lore is simply taken for granted.<sup>27</sup>'' | ||
'' | Footnote 27 (pp124): ''Thus, Griffith (The Bible in Arabic, p. 57) speaks of ‘the Islamic scripture’s unspoken and pervasive confidence that its audience is thoroughly familiar with the stories of the biblical patriarchs and prophets, so familiar in fact that there is no need for even the most rudimentary form of introduction’.''</ref> Angelika Neuwirth,<ref>The catalogue of punishment legends that is here presented only in a list form is the first of its kind in the Qur’an. ''It evokes events apparently already known to the hearers,'' wherein the local and Arab (ʿĀd, Thamūd, here mentioned for the first time) are brought together with the biblical (Firʿawn, likewise for the first time in this passage) without differentiation. | ||
''Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 1: Early Meccan Suras: Poetic Prophecy (p. 117) (Kindle Edition). Yale University Press.''</ref> Robert G. Hoyland,<ref>Hoyland, Robert G.. ''[https://archive.org/details/ARABIAANDTHEARABSFromTheBronzeAgeToTheComingOfIslamRobertG.Hoyland/page/n235/mode/2up Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam]'' (Peoples of the Ancient World) (p. 222-223). Taylor & Francis.</ref> Andrew Bannister<ref>''The Qur’an frequently mentions biblical characters and episodes in a manner which suggests that the reader is clearly expected to be familiar with them.'' | |||
Bannister, Andrew G.. An Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur'an (pp. 12-13) (Kindle Edition). Lexington Books. 2014. </ref> and Stephen Shoemaker,<ref>At the most general level, the Qurʾān reveals a monotheist religious movement grounded in the biblical and extra-biblical traditions of Judaism and Christianity, to which certain uniquely “Arab” traditions have been added. ''These traditions, however, are often related in an allusive style, which seems to presuppose knowledge of the larger narrative on the part of its audience.'' | Bannister, Andrew G.. An Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur'an (pp. 12-13) (Kindle Edition). Lexington Books. 2014. </ref> and Stephen Shoemaker,<ref>At the most general level, the Qurʾān reveals a monotheist religious movement grounded in the biblical and extra-biblical traditions of Judaism and Christianity, to which certain uniquely “Arab” traditions have been added. ''These traditions, however, are often related in an allusive style, which seems to presuppose knowledge of the larger narrative on the part of its audience.'' | ||
Shoemaker, Stephen J.. ''The Death of a Prophet (Divinations: Rereading Late Ancient Religion) (Kindle Locations 2691-2694).'' University of Pennsylvania Press, Inc.. Kindle Edition. </ref> have noted, that the Qur'an appears to recall Biblical and Arabian stories in | Shoemaker, Stephen J.. ''The Death of a Prophet (Divinations: Rereading Late Ancient Religion) (Kindle Locations 2691-2694).'' University of Pennsylvania Press, Inc.. Kindle Edition. </ref> have noted, that the Qur'an appears to recall Biblical and Arabian stories in an allusive way that pre-supposes the audience is already familiar with the wider more detailed story and characters. This suggests that these were commonly known in the environment that it was originally preached in, and we see further evidence of this alongside the proximity of Judeo-Christian monotheists, with examples have been found in pre-Islamic poetry.<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. “Religious Poetry from the Quranic Milieu: Umayya b. Abī l-Ṣalt on the Fate of the Thamūd.” ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' 74, no. 3 (2011): 397–416. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X11000309</nowiki>.</ref> | ||
==Worship at the Ka’bah== | ==Worship at the Ka’bah== | ||
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{{Quote| {{Bukhari|1|3|128}}|Narrated Aswad: Ibn Az-Zubair said to me, "Aisha used to tell you secretly a number of things. What did she tell you about the Ka'ba?" I replied, "She told me that once the Prophet said, 'O 'Aisha! Had not your people been still close to the pre-Islamic period of ignorance (infidelity)! I would have dismantled the Ka'ba and would have made two doors in it; one for entrance and the other for exit." Later on Ibn Az-Zubair did the same.}} | {{Quote| {{Bukhari|1|3|128}}|Narrated Aswad: Ibn Az-Zubair said to me, "Aisha used to tell you secretly a number of things. What did she tell you about the Ka'ba?" I replied, "She told me that once the Prophet said, 'O 'Aisha! Had not your people been still close to the pre-Islamic period of ignorance (infidelity)! I would have dismantled the Ka'ba and would have made two doors in it; one for entrance and the other for exit." Later on Ibn Az-Zubair did the same.}} | ||
==Veneration of the Black-stone== | == Ḥajj (pilgrimage) == | ||
=== Religious language === | |||
Islamic scholar Peter Webb (2023) notes that Qur'anic religious language is found in pre-Islamic poetry such as ''muʿtamir'', formed from the same root as the Muslim ''ʿumrah'', to describe a pilgrim, and several pre-Islamic poets invoke the word ''ḥijaj'' (lit. ‘pilgrimages’, a plural of ''ḥijjah'') to express the concept of ‘years’, especially ‘years gone by’.''ʿUmrah/muʿtamir'', to Webb's knowledge, do not appear as terms for reckoning time in poetry, whereas that metaphorical aspect attaches to ''ḥijaj'' alone, suggesting that ''ḥajj'' likely did connote an annually-occurring pilgrimage (while ''ʿumrah'' did not), and that a regular pattern of annual pilgrimages known as hajjes was sufficiently well-established to enable the term ‘pilgrimage’ to serve as a metaphor for the passage of time itself.<ref>Webb, Peter. "''The Hajj Before Muhammad: The Early Evidence in Poetry and Hadith"'' Millennium, vol. 20, no. 1, 2023, pp. 33-63. https://doi.org/10.1515/mill-2023-0004. ''pp. 37 - 38''</ref> Several pre-Islamic poets refer to the Hajj sacrifice animals in precisely the same term as the Qur’an’s ''hady'', which suggests more continuity than change.<ref>Ibid. pp. 47</ref> | |||
=== Shaving hair === | |||
The shaving hair ritual during Ḥajj, found in hadith such as:{{Quote|{{Bukhari|2|26|704}}|Ibn `Umar intended to perform Hajj in the year when Al-Hajjaj attacked Ibn Az-Zubair. Somebody said to Ibn `Umar, "There is a danger of an impending war between them." Ibn `Umar said, "Verily, in Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) you have a good example. (And if it happened as you say) then I would do the same as Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) had done. I make you witness that I have decided to perform `Umra." Then he set out and when he reached Al-Baida', he said, "The ceremonies of both Hajj and `Umra are similar. I make you witness that I have made Hajj compulsory for me along with `Umra." He drove (to Mecca) a Hadi which he had bought from (a place called) Qudaid and did not do more than that. He did not slaughter the Hadi or finish his Ihram, or shave or cut short his hair till the day of slaughtering the sacrifices (10th Dhul-Hijja). Then he slaughtered his Hadi and shaved his head and considered the first Tawaf (of Safa and Marwa) as sufficient for Hajj and `Umra. Ibn `Umar said, "Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) did the same."}}And for example {{Bukhari|2|26|786}}, {{Muslim|7|2992}} and {{Ibn Majah|2=4|3=25|4=3044}}, has been found in pre-Islamic poetry as part of the pilgrimage, where Webb (2023) notes:{{Quote|Webb, Peter. 2023. [https://doi.org/10.1515/mill-2023-0004 The Hajj Before Muhammad: The Early Evidence in Poetry and Hadith] pp. 41|However, the reference to the sacred House and the circumambulation by its resident tribes, Jurhum and Quraysh, is reported consistently in the poem’s recensions and stands as a pre-Islamic indicator that the Quraysh were known before Muhammad as custodians of a sacred House, and, as in the case of al-Nābighah’s poem above, the ritual was worthy of being the subject of an oath. In the second poem, Zuhayr makes another oath:<sup>27</sup> | |||
<i>I swore solemnly by the campsites of Minā, | |||
and by the shaven forelocks and lice-laden hair.</i> | |||
Minā is the Hajj pilgrims’ campground, and shaving hair remains one of the mandatory Hajj rituals for men; Zuhayr’s poem provides pre-Islamic testimony for both, as well as their reputed sanctity in pre-Islam, inasmuch as he employs both in an oath.}}As well in the Abū Dhuʾyab al-Hudhalī (a roughly contemporary of Muhammad) corpus.<ref>Ibid. pp. 45</ref> | |||
=== Tawaf between Safa and Marwa === | |||
Doing Tawaf between Safa and Marwa is an Islamic ritual associated with the pilgrimage to Mecca. Safa and Marwa are two mounts, located at Mecca. This ritual entails Muslims walking frantically between the two mounts, seven times. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|158}}|Indeed, as-Safa and al-Marwah are among the symbols of Allah. So whoever makes Hajj to the House or performs 'umrah - there is no blame upon him for walking between them. And whoever volunteers good - then indeed, Allah is appreciative and Knowing.}} | |||
According to a hadith in Bukhari, this was originally a pre-Islamic practice, which may explain the phrase "there is no blame upon him" in the above quoted verse. | |||
{{Quote| {{Bukhari|2|26|710}}|Narrated 'Asim: | |||
I asked Anas bin Malik: "Did you use to dislike to perform Tawaf between Safa and Marwa?" He said, "Yes, as it was of the ceremonies of the days of the Pre-lslamic period of ignorance, till Allah revealed: 'Verily! (The two mountains) As-Safa and Al-Marwa are among the symbols of Allah. It is therefore no sin for him who performs the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba, or performs 'Umra, to perform Tawaf between them.' " (2.158)}} | |||
A tradition also exists about Hagar running between these two mounts in search of water until she found the [[Zamzam Well]]. | |||
=== Requirement of Ihram === | |||
Ihram is a state a Muslim enters into for his pilgrimage to Mecca. It involves a series of procedures like ritual washing, wearing 'Ihram garments', etc. The practice of reciting talbiyah (invocations) at the point of entering Ihram goes back to the pre-Islamic Arabs. The early Islamic historian Muqātil b. Sulaymān (d. 150/767) describes 56 such invocations read before Ihram, each tribe having their own.<ref>See this [https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1370815386757828614 Twitter.com thread] by Dr Ahab Bdawi - 13 March 2021</ref> | |||
Ihram was according to hadith in Sahih Bukhari originally a pagan requirement for worshiping idols during pre-Islamic times. Muhammad retained this practice for Islam. Muslims assume Ihram to perform the Hajj or Umrah. | |||
{{Quote| {{Bukhari|2|26|706}}|Narrated 'Urwa: I asked 'Aisha : ...But in fact, this divine inspiration was revealed concerning the Ansar who used to assume “Ihram” for worshipping an idol called “Manat” which they used to worship at a place called Al-Mushallal before they embraced Islam, and whoever assumed Ihram (for the idol), would consider it not right to perform Tawaf between Safa and Marwa.}} | |||
=== Circumambulation 7 Times === | |||
A few verses in the Quran permits circumambulation around the sacred house, which it states was a command originally given to Abraham at the same place. Circumambulation means to circle around. In Islam, pilgrims do this seven times around the Ka'bah at Mecca. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|22|26|29}}|And [mention, O Muhammad], when We designated for Abraham the site of the House, [saying], "Do not associate anything with Me and purify My House for those who perform Tawaf and those who stand [in prayer] and those who bow and prostrate. And proclaim to the people the Hajj [pilgrimage]; they will come to you on foot and on every lean camel; they will come from every distant pass - That they may witness benefits for themselves and mention the name of Allah on known days over what He has provided for them of [sacrificial] animals. So eat of them and feed the miserable and poor. Then let them end their untidiness and fulfill their vows and perform Tawaf around the ancient House."}} | |||
The historian Robert Hoyland says regarding the same practice in pre-Islamic religion: | |||
{{Quote|Robert Hoyland, ''Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam'' p. 188|The most common name for such god-stones comes from the Semitic root ''nṣb'', meaning to be stood upright. Other terms reflect different aspects of their use; thus in Nabataean they could be called ''masgida'', meaning a place of prostration, and in pre-Islamic Arab poetry ''dûwâr'', '''object of circumambulation''', commonly occurs.}} | |||
[[File:Kaaba tawaf and hindu marriage.jpg|thumb|260px|right|In the Islamic ritual of [[w:Tawaf|Tawaf]], Muslims go around the Kaaba 7 times. In the Hindu marriage rite of [[w:Satphere|Satphere]], the married couple goes around a fire also 7 times. In both of these rituals, religious phrases are repeated during the circumambulation]]Judaism and Christianity (the religions of those who are considered [[People of the Book]]) do not practice ritual circumambulation to please God. Two of the other major faiths with similar practice are Hinduism and Buddhism (called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parikrama Parikrama]). Both of these faiths are accused by traditional Islam of “paganism” and practicing idolatry. | |||
If hadiths are to be believed, Muhammad performed circumambulation around the Ka'bah even before he had cast out the idols therefrom. While such accounts may be doubted, see the end of the introduction sections of the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]] regarding early Muslim eyewitness accounts of Judeo-Christian religious icons in the Ka'ba. | |||
== Veneration of the Black-stone == | |||
{{Main|Black Stone}} | {{Main|Black Stone}} | ||
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== The Four Sacred Months == | == The Four Sacred Months == | ||
The Quran contains a mention of four scared months, and gives an admonishment against those who alter them year by year. | The Quran contains a mention of four scared months, and gives an admonishment against those who alter them year by year. | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|36-37}}|Indeed, the number of months with Allah is twelve [lunar] months in the register of Allah since the day He created the heavens and the earth; of these, four months are sacred. That is the correct religion, so do not wrong yourselves during them. And fight against the disbelievers collectively as they fight against you collectively. And know that Allah is with the righteous [who fear Him]. Indeed, the postponing [sacred months] is an increase in disbelief by which those who have disbelieved are led [further] astray. They make it lawful one year and unlawful another year to correspond to the number made unlawful by Allah and [thus] make lawful what Allah has made unlawful.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|9|36-37}}|Indeed, the number of months with Allah is twelve [lunar] months in the register of Allah since the day He created the heavens and the earth; of these, four months are sacred. That is the correct religion, so do not wrong yourselves during them. And fight against the disbelievers collectively as they fight against you collectively. And know that Allah is with the righteous [who fear Him]. Indeed, the postponing [sacred months] is an increase in disbelief by which those who have disbelieved are led [further] astray. They make it lawful one year and unlawful another year to correspond to the number made unlawful by Allah and [thus] make lawful what Allah has made unlawful.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|9|5}}|And when the sacred months have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they should repent, establish prayer, and give zakah, let them [go] on their way. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.}} | ||
In extra-Qur'anic material such as the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=Dhul+Qadha+Dhul+Hijjah+Muharram+Rajab hadith] and commentaries we learn that these months are called Dhul Qadha, Dhul Hijjah, Muharram and Rajab, which the pre-Islamic pagan Arabs used to consider sacred during the time of Jahiliyyah, where tribal fighting would be agreed to stop and pilgrimage could be performed safely.<ref>Tafsir Ibn Kathir on ''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/9.36 verse 9:36.]'' Ibn Kathir (d. 1373)</ref> Sinning in these months is considered greater than others.<ref>Talmon-Heller, Daniella. “Introduction.” ''Sacred Place and Sacred Time in the Medieval Islamic Middle East: A Historical Perspective'', Edinburgh University Press, 2020, pp. 127–33. ''(pp. 29)'' ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctv10kmddp.22</nowiki>. Accessed 1 Sept. 2024.</ref> | In extra-Qur'anic material such as the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=Dhul+Qadha+Dhul+Hijjah+Muharram+Rajab hadith] and commentaries we learn that these months are called Dhul Qadha, Dhul Hijjah, Muharram and Rajab, which the pre-Islamic pagan Arabs used to consider sacred during the time of Jahiliyyah, where tribal fighting would be agreed to stop and pilgrimage could be performed safely.<ref>Tafsir Ibn Kathir on ''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/9.36 verse 9:36.]'' Ibn Kathir (d. 1373)</ref> Sinning in these months is considered greater than others.<ref>Talmon-Heller, Daniella. “Introduction.” ''Sacred Place and Sacred Time in the Medieval Islamic Middle East: A Historical Perspective'', Edinburgh University Press, 2020, pp. 127–33. ''(pp. 29)'' ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctv10kmddp.22</nowiki>. Accessed 1 Sept. 2024.</ref> | ||
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'Ashura' (i.e. the tenth of Muharram) was a day on which the tribe of Quraish used to fast in the pre-lslamic period of ignorance. The Prophet also used to fast on this day. So when he migrated to Medina, he fasted on it and ordered (the Muslims) to fast on it. When the fasting of Ramadan was enjoined, it became optional for the people to fast or not to fast on the day of Ashura.}} | 'Ashura' (i.e. the tenth of Muharram) was a day on which the tribe of Quraish used to fast in the pre-lslamic period of ignorance. The Prophet also used to fast on this day. So when he migrated to Medina, he fasted on it and ordered (the Muslims) to fast on it. When the fasting of Ramadan was enjoined, it became optional for the people to fast or not to fast on the day of Ashura.}} | ||
== | == Oath verses == | ||
There are many 'oaths' in the Quran often at the start of surahs 'swearing' on something.{{Quote|{{Quran|103|1}}|By the afternoon! <br> | There are many 'oaths' in the Quran often at the start of surahs 'swearing' on something.{{Quote|{{Quran|103|1}}|By the afternoon! <br> | ||
wal-ʿaṣri}}Stewart (2012)<ref>Stewart, Devin J. "''The Mysterious Letters and Other Formal Features of the Qur’ān in Light of Greek and Babylonian Oracular Texts.''" Found in: Reynolds, Gabriel. ''New Perspectives on the Qur'an: The Qur'an in its Historical Context 2 (Routledge Studies in the Qur'an)'' Taylor & Francis. 2012. pp. 323-48.</ref> notes that the oaths at the beginning of many Qur'anic surahs (along with other Qur'anic features) belong to a pre-Islamic oracular tradition tied to soothsaying. These oaths often invoke celestial bodies like the sun, moon, and stars, as well as natural phenomena such as night, day, and specific times. Historically, some of these celestial entities were worshiped as deities, including by the Quraysh tribe. In the Qur'an, however, their predictable regularity is emphasized as a sign of God's control over the universe. The use of oaths referencing specific times of day reflects a continuation of pre-Islamic poetic and oracular conventions. Examples include swearing by the dawn, twilight, morning, and other specific times, as seen in various verses (e.g., {{Quran|92|1-2}}, {{Quran|74|32-34}}, {{Quran|81|18}}, {{Quran|89|1}}, {{Quran|84|15}}). ''[[:en:Huruf_Muqatta'at_(Disjointed_Letters_in_the_Qur'an)|Mysterious letters]] and references to scripture are sometimes combined with an oath, as in Qāf * wa-l-Qurʾāni l-majīd *, “Q. By the Glorious Qurʾān” (Q 50:1); Nūn wa-l-qalami wa-mā yasṭurūn, “N. By the pen and what they record” (Q 68:1); Ḥā mīm wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn, “Ḥ. M. By the clear Book” (43:1–2; 44:1–2).'' He notes on the origin of these kind of oaths in pre-Islamic Arabia. | wal-ʿaṣri}}Stewart (2012)<ref>Stewart, Devin J. "''The Mysterious Letters and Other Formal Features of the Qur’ān in Light of Greek and Babylonian Oracular Texts.''" Found in: Reynolds, Gabriel. ''New Perspectives on the Qur'an: The Qur'an in its Historical Context 2 (Routledge Studies in the Qur'an)'' Taylor & Francis. 2012. pp. 323-48.</ref> notes that the oaths at the beginning of many Qur'anic surahs (along with other Qur'anic features) belong to a pre-Islamic oracular tradition tied to soothsaying. These oaths often invoke celestial bodies like the sun, moon, and stars, as well as natural phenomena such as night, day, and specific times. Historically, some of these celestial entities were worshiped as deities, including by the Quraysh tribe. In the Qur'an, however, their predictable regularity is emphasized as a sign of God's control over the universe. The use of oaths referencing specific times of day reflects a continuation of pre-Islamic poetic and oracular conventions. Examples include swearing by the dawn, twilight, morning, and other specific times, as seen in various verses (e.g., {{Quran|92|1-2}}, {{Quran|74|32-34}}, {{Quran|81|18}}, {{Quran|89|1}}, {{Quran|84|15}}). ''[[:en:Huruf_Muqatta'at_(Disjointed_Letters_in_the_Qur'an)|Mysterious letters]] and references to scripture are sometimes combined with an oath, as in Qāf * wa-l-Qurʾāni l-majīd *, “Q. By the Glorious Qurʾān” (Q 50:1); Nūn wa-l-qalami wa-mā yasṭurūn, “N. By the pen and what they record” (Q 68:1); Ḥā mīm wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn, “Ḥ. M. By the clear Book” (43:1–2; 44:1–2).''<ref>Ibid. pp. 339.</ref> He notes on the origin of these kind of oaths in pre-Islamic Arabia. | ||
{{Quote|Stewart, Devin J. "The Mysterious Letters and Other Formal Features of the Qur’ān in Light of Greek and Babylonian Oracular Texts." New Perspectives on the Qur'an (2012). pp 337.|The oaths to the sun, moon, and stars which appear so frequently in the oaths of pre-Islamic and Qurʾānic oracles, as well as the oaths to animals in pre-Islamic oracles, may have developed out of the signs used for divination. For example, the Yemeni soothsayer Saṭīḥ (Rabīʿ b. Rabīʿa b. Masʿūd) supposedly made the following prediction explaining a dream of the Yemeni king Rabīʿa b. Naṣr: aḥlifu bi-mā bayna l-ḥarratayni min ḥanash la-tahbiṭanna arḍakum ul-ḥabash fa-la-yamlikunna mā bayna Abyana ilā Jurash I swear by the snakes in between the two lava fields, that the Ethiopians will descend on your land, and conquer all the territory between Abyan and Jurash<sup>39</sup>... ...Pre-Islamic oracles frequently swore by or referred to animals, as Saṭīḥ’s oracle for Rabīʿa b. Naṣr mentioned above refers to snakes. Similarly, the pronouncements attributed to Musaylimah refer to the wolf, frog, and elephant. <sup>42</sup> This feature of pre-Islamic oracles that resembles Greek usage was for the most part abandoned in the Qurʾān. The opening oaths in al-ʿĀdiyāt (Q 100) appear to be an exception, referring most likely to horses. The opening oath passages in several Sūras which each feature a series of feminine plural participles (Q 37:1–3; 51:1–4; 77:1–4; 79:1–5; 100:1–5) lead one to think that this was a conventional type of oath in pre-Islamic oracular pronouncements. 43 This particular convention remains poorly understood, but such oaths may have originally referred to animals or spirits. }} | {{Quote|Stewart, Devin J. "The Mysterious Letters and Other Formal Features of the Qur’ān in Light of Greek and Babylonian Oracular Texts." New Perspectives on the Qur'an (2012). pp 337-338.|The oaths to the sun, moon, and stars which appear so frequently in the oaths of pre-Islamic and Qurʾānic oracles, as well as the oaths to animals in pre-Islamic oracles, may have developed out of the signs used for divination. For example, the Yemeni soothsayer Saṭīḥ (Rabīʿ b. Rabīʿa b. Masʿūd) supposedly made the following prediction explaining a dream of the Yemeni king Rabīʿa b. Naṣr: aḥlifu bi-mā bayna l-ḥarratayni min ḥanash la-tahbiṭanna arḍakum ul-ḥabash fa-la-yamlikunna mā bayna Abyana ilā Jurash I swear by the snakes in between the two lava fields, that the Ethiopians will descend on your land, and conquer all the territory between Abyan and Jurash<sup>39</sup>... ...Pre-Islamic oracles frequently swore by or referred to animals, as Saṭīḥ’s oracle for Rabīʿa b. Naṣr mentioned above refers to snakes. Similarly, the pronouncements attributed to Musaylimah refer to the wolf, frog, and elephant. <sup>42</sup> This feature of pre-Islamic oracles that resembles Greek usage was for the most part abandoned in the Qurʾān. The opening oaths in al-ʿĀdiyāt (Q 100) appear to be an exception, referring most likely to horses. The opening oath passages in several Sūras which each feature a series of feminine plural participles (Q 37:1–3; 51:1–4; 77:1–4; 79:1–5; 100:1–5) lead one to think that this was a conventional type of oath in pre-Islamic oracular pronouncements. <sup>43</sup> This particular convention remains poorly understood, but such oaths may have originally referred to animals or spirits. }} | ||
==Punishments for Adultery and Theft== | ==Punishments for Adultery and Theft== | ||