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{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One}}
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One}}


In these verses, the author presents a version of a popular legend of the 7th century as found in Arabic poems and a Syriac legend of a man named Dhu'l-Qarnayn who visits the places where the sun sets and rises.
In these verses, the author presents a version of a popular [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance|Syriac legend]] from the 6th or early 7th century in which a man called Dhu'l-Qarnayn visits the places where the sun sets and rises.


{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}|
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Till, when he reached the rising-place of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had appointed no shelter therefrom. }}
Till, when he reached the rising-place of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had appointed no shelter therefrom. }}


Centuries after Muhammad lived, commentators with better astronomical knowledge introduced interpretations of these verses such that Dhu'l-Qarnayn only traveled until he reached "the west" or to a spot "at the time" when the sun set and not the "place" where the sun set. However, these alternative interpretations are severely undermined by the [[Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Sun_Setting_in_a_Muddy_Spring_-_Part_One#First_interpretation:_He_reached_the_west_and_east|context and Arabic words used in these verses]], which instead point to physical locations where the sun did its setting and rising. A plethora of evidence shows that the early Muslims understood the verse in this straightforward way.
Centuries after Muhammad lived, commentators with better astronomical knowledge introduced interpretations of these verses such that Dhu'l-Qarnayn only traveled until he reached "the west" and "the east", or to spots "at the time" when the sun set and rose and not the places where it actually did so. However, these alternative interpretations are severely undermined by the [[Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Sun_Setting_in_a_Muddy_Spring_-_Part_One#First_interpretation:_He_reached_the_west_and_east|context and Arabic words used in these verses]], which instead point to physical locations where the sun did its setting and rising. An abundance of evidence from poems, hadiths and Quranic commentaries show that the early Muslims understood the verse in this straightforward way.


===Earth and heavens created in six days===
===Earth and heavens created in six days===
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Some modern Muslim scholars attempt to reconcile the Qur'anic description with modern science by arguing that the word 'Then' in the verses above does not indicate sequence, but that it instead means 'moreover'. This argument collides with the fact that these words (thumma in {{Quran|41|11}} and {{Quran|2|29}}, and fa in {{Quran|41|12}} - all translated as 'then') are generally used to indicate sequence. In other contexts, thumma was sometimes used to mean 'moreover'. This alternative usage, however, would always be unambiguous and clear in context, unlike in the passages quoted above, which evidently describe a stepwise process - the creation of the heavens subsequent to that of the Earth.
Some modern Muslim scholars attempt to reconcile the Qur'anic description with modern science by arguing that the word 'Then' in the verses above does not indicate sequence, but that it instead means 'moreover'. This argument collides with the fact that these words (thumma in {{Quran|41|11}} and {{Quran|2|29}}, and fa in {{Quran|41|12}} - all translated as 'then') are generally used to indicate sequence. In other contexts, thumma was sometimes used to mean 'moreover'. This alternative usage, however, would always be unambiguous and clear in context, unlike in the passages quoted above, which evidently describe a stepwise process - the creation of the heavens subsequent to that of the Earth.


In another passage, {{Quran-range|79|27|33}}, the heaven (singular) has already been raised and proportioned as a ceiling before the earth is spread, pastures produced and mountains fixed. Ibn Kathir notes in his tafsir that Ibn 'Abbas said the Earth was created first before each of these events and that scholars intepreted the Arabic word dahaha (دَحَىٰهَآ) in verse 79:30 to refer to a specific kind of spreading that occured after everything on Earth had been created.<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/2.29 Tafsir ibn Kathir 2:29]</ref> However, the passage nevertheless appears to contradict the sequence of {{Quran-range|41|9|12}}, in which the heaven is still "smoke" after Earth's sustinence and mountains have been placed.
In another passage, {{Quran-range|79|27|33}}, the heaven (singular) has already been raised and proportioned as a ceiling before the earth is spread, pastures produced and mountains fixed. Ibn Kathir notes in his tafsir that Ibn 'Abbas said the Earth was created first before each of these events and that scholars interpreted the Arabic word dahaha (دَحَىٰهَآ) in verse 79:30 to refer to a specific kind of spreading that occurred after everything on Earth had been created.<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/2.29 Tafsir ibn Kathir 2:29]</ref> However, the passage nevertheless appears to contradict the sequence of {{Quran-range|41|9|12}}, in which the heaven is still "smoke" after Earth's sustenance and mountains have been placed.


====Earth and heavens torn apart====
====Earth and heavens torn apart====
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Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe? }}
Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe? }}


The word translated "joined together" is ratqan (رَتْقًا)<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000193.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1027 رَتْقًا] </ref> meaning closed up or sewn up, also used metaphorically in terms of reconciling people, but does not imply a homogenous mass or state, let alone a singularity.
The word translated "joined together" is ratqan (رَتْقًا)<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000193.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1027 رَتْقًا] </ref> meaning closed up or sewn up, also used metaphorically in terms of reconciling people, but does not imply a homogenous mass or state, let alone a singularity. The words "(one unit of creation)" are the translator's own exegetical note.


The separation of the heavens and earth can be read in the context of verses that mention something "between" their fully formed state (which seems to be occupied by the clouds {{Quran|2|164}} and birds {{Quran|24|41}}), and that the heaven is a roof raised high ({{Quran|52|5}}).
Mirroring this is the word fataqnāhumā ("we clove them asunder"), whose root rhymes with ratqan and means to slit, rent asunder, divide, unstitch.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000115.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2331 فتق]</ref>
 
The separation of the heavens and earth can be read in the context of verses that mention something "between" their fully formed state (which seems to be occupied by the clouds {{Quran|2|164}} and birds {{Quran|24|41}}), and that the heaven is a roof "raised high" ({{Quran|52|5}}).


{{Quote|{{Quran|50|38}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|50|38}}|
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There is no scientific theory in which the Earth and heavens were torn apart from each other. The verse states that "We clove them" (dual pronoun 'huma'), not "We clove it", thereby indicating that the Earth and heavens are distinct after the cloving. If one holds that {{Quran|21|30}} describes the big bang, the atomic particles that would later form the Earth would at the beginning would have to be separated from those that would go on to form everything else in the universe. This, however, bears no resemblance to modern scientific cosmology, wherein the material that forms the Earth passed through at least one earlier generation of stars, and more recently was part of various asteroids, comets and planetesimals orbiting the sun (which could all be described as being in the 'heavens') that sometimes collided and merged with each other, sometimes split apart, and gradually coalesced under gravity to form the Earth and other planets.
There is no scientific theory in which the Earth and heavens were torn apart from each other. The verse states that "We clove them" (dual pronoun 'huma'), not "We clove it", thereby indicating that the Earth and heavens are distinct after the cloving. If one holds that {{Quran|21|30}} describes the big bang, the atomic particles that would later form the Earth would at the beginning would have to be separated from those that would go on to form everything else in the universe. This, however, bears no resemblance to modern scientific cosmology, wherein the material that forms the Earth passed through at least one earlier generation of stars, and more recently was part of various asteroids, comets and planetesimals orbiting the sun (which could all be described as being in the 'heavens') that sometimes collided and merged with each other, sometimes split apart, and gradually coalesced under gravity to form the Earth and other planets.


The very next verse {{Quran|21|31}} speaks of mountains being placed on the Earth. Here, 'the Earth' must mean an actual world, yet modern interpretations of the previous verse hold that 'the Earth' refers merely to atomic particles at the time of the big bang.
The very next verse {{Quran|21|31}} speaks of mountains being placed on the Earth. Here, 'the Earth' must mean an actual world, yet modern interpretations of the previous verse hold that 'the Earth' refers merely to atomic particles around the time of the big bang.


====Heaven made from smoke====
====Heaven made from smoke====
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Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range|41|9|10}}, discussed above).
Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range|41|9|10}}, discussed above).
Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible (which in the Greek version stated "The heaven was made like smoke [καπνός]") to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance.<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>


===Seven Earths===
===Seven Earths===
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran|Science and the Seven Earths}}     
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran|Science and the Seven Earths}}     


{{Quran|65|12}} plainly states that there exist seven earths.  
The Quran states that there exist seven earths. Academic scholarship has noted that this concept of seven earths, along with seven heavens, was present in the near east in the first millennia BCE and CE (see [[Cosmology of the Quran]]).


{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}|
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See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another}}
See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another}}


Some modern Islamic scholars have argued that these verses refer to the seven layers of the atmosphere. However, {{Quran|37|6}} states that stars occupy the nearest heaven. Additionally, there are 5 rather than 7 principal layers to the [[W:Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], and likewise only 5 rather than 7 major layers to the [[w:Structure_of_Earth|Earth itself]].
Some modern Islamic scholars have argued that these verses refer to the seven layers of the atmosphere. However, {{Quran|37|6}} and {{Quran|67|5}} state that stars occupy the nearest heaven. Additionally, there are 5 rather than 7 principal layers to the [[W:Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], and likewise only 5 rather than 7 major layers to the [[w:Structure_of_Earth|Earth itself]].
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}| Surely We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment, the stars}}
 
===Meteors as stars fired at devils===
{{Main|Shooting Stars in the Quran|Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)}}
 
The Qur'an states that stars (''kawakib'' ٱلْكَوَاكِبِ), lamps (''masabih'' مَصَٰبِيحَ) and great stars/constellations/zodiac signs (''burūj'' بُرُوجًا) adorn the heavens and guard against devils.
 
The Qur'an further asserts that Allah has made them (the stars/lamps) flaming missiles to ward away devils (or in some verses, jinn), who attempt to listen in on heavenly meetings (known as the Exalted Assembly). The Quranic concept has a close parallel in [[Pre-Islamic_Arab_Religion_in_Islam#Shooting_Stars_and_Eavesdropping_Shaytans|an earlier Jewish development from Zoroastrian mythology]]. Such myths are best understood as pre-modern attempts to explain the common phenomenon of meteors streaking across the night sky.
 
While stars are giant balls of gas thousands of times larger than the earth, meteors are small rocky masses or grains of debris which burn up after entering the earth's atmosphere. Many ancient people confused the two, as meteors look like stars that are streaking across the sky; this is why they were often called [[w:Meteoroid|shooting stars]] or falling stars. Large increases in meteors occur on a predictable schedule each year as the Earth's orbit passes through the stream of particles and debris left in the wake of a number of comets (or in a few cases, of asteroids). The most visible is usually the annual [[w:Perseids|Perseid meteor shower]] in August.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|37|6|10}}|
Indeed, We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment of stars '''And as protection''' against every rebellious devil [So] they may not listen to the exalted assembly [of angels] and are pelted from every side, Repelled; and for them is a constant punishment, Except one who snatches [some words] by theft, but they are pursued by a burning flame, piercing [in brightness].}}
 
The same Arabic words are used at the start of {{Quran|67|5}} as in {{Quran|37|6}} (زَيَّنَّا ٱلسَّمَآءَ ٱلدُّنْيَا), except that in {{Quran|67|5}} the word lamps is used instead of stars. The lamps that 'beautify the heaven' must refer to stars (and perhaps also the 5 visible planets), which are always there. Meteors, on the other hand, are now known to be distinct from the distant stars. They are often not much larger than grains of sand and only become visible for a second when they burn up, generating light in the Earth's atmosphere.


{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}| Surely We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment, the stars}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|67|5}}|
And verily We have beautified the world's heaven with lamps, '''and We have made them''' missiles for the devils, and for them We have prepared the doom of flame.}}
 
The word translated "missiles" is rujūman (رُجُومًا), which are things that are thrown, especially stones.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000214.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1048 رُجُومًا]</ref>
 
A hadith confirms that the 'pursuant flames / missiles' in the two verses were understood to mean what we now know are visible meteors. {{Muslim|26|5538}} and {{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3224}} recount an occasion when Muhammad and his companions saw a shooting star at night. He explains to his companions that angels throw these at Jinn when they try to steal information about Allah's commands passed down through the heavens.
 
Other relevant Quran verses are {{Quran-range|55|33|35}} (flame of fire and smoke, though a slightly different context), {{Quran-range|15|16|18}}, and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|33|35}}|O company of jinn and mankind, if you are able to pass beyond the regions of the heavens and the earth, then pass. You will not pass except by authority [from Allah].
So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny? There will be sent upon you a flame of fire and smoke, and you will not defend yourselves.}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|16|18}}|It is We Who have set out the zodiacal signs in the heavens, and have beautified it for the beholders; And (moreover) We have guarded them from every cursed devil: But any that gains a hearing by stealth, is pursued by a flaming fire, bright (to see).
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|72|8|9}}|And we have sought [to reach] the heaven but found it filled with powerful guards and burning flames. And we used to sit therein in positions for hearing, but whoever listens now will find a burning flame lying in wait for him.}}
 
If the flaming missiles mentioned by the Quran are to be identified with meteors burning up in the Earth's atmosphere, this would locate the eavesdropping devils (or jinn) in the upper atmosphere too, which leaves no way for the (extremely distant) stars to serve as guards in this process as outlined in the verses. However, these verses would of course fit a relatively small universe as imagined by 7th century Arabs, in which a heavenly firmament is adorned with stars able to pelt shooting stars at any devils or jinn in their vicinity, seeming to cover interstellar distances in a flaming streak across the sky. This is further supported by {{Quran|21|32}} which describes the heaven as a guarded ceiling.
 
Two alternative interpretations popular in modern times are that the Quran is referring to [[w:Coronal mass ejections|coronal mass ejections]] (large eruptions of charged matter from the sun or other stars), or [[w:Cosmic rays|cosmic rays]] (high energy, sub-atomic particles travelling through interstellar space). However, coronal mass ejections move slowly in cosmic terms, disperse over distance and do not come from surprise directions ({{Quran|37|8}} states that the devils are pelted from every side, and pursued by a piercing flame if they escape with anything they overheard). Cosmic rays do not emit light as they travel through space and therefore nor could these be the flaming missiles of fire and smoke in the Quran.


===Implied similar size and distance of the sun and moon===
===Implied similar size and distance of the sun and moon===
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{{Quote|{{Quran-range|75|8|9}}|And the moon darkens And the sun and the moon are joined,}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|75|8|9}}|And the moon darkens And the sun and the moon are joined,}}


The Arabic word translated as "are joined" is ''jumi'a'', a verb which means to collect together, gather together, bring together.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000091.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 455 جُمِعَ]</ref> Critics note that this would require the moon to travel tens of millions of miles away from Earth and into the sun, which is over 400 times wider. To describe them as brought together (jumi'a) in such a scenario would hardly be apt, critics argue, and a very odd apocalyptic event. Rather, the description sits comfortably in the ancient understanding of the cosmos, whereby the sun and moon were assumed to be two roughly equivalent celestial bodies in the sky above the Earth.
The Arabic word translated as "are joined" is ''jumi'a'', a verb which means to collect together, gather together, bring together.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000091.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 455 جُمِعَ]</ref> Critics note that this would involve our moon, which orbits the Earth 93 million miles away from the sun, being brought together with our local star which is over 400 times wider. To say that such mismatched objects will be brought together (jumi'a) in such a scenario would hardly be apt, critics argue, and a very odd apocalyptic event. Rather, the description sits comfortably in the ancient understanding of the cosmos, whereby the sun and moon were assumed to be two roughly equivalent celestial bodies in the sky above the Earth.  
 
The Earth and moon's average distance to the Sun is about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers). The narrowest estimate for the habitable zone of our solar system implies that if the sun was on average as little as 1.5 million km closer to Earth, it would become uninhabitable.<ref>[https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/how-much-closer-to-the-sun-could-earths-orbit-get-and-still-be-habitable How much closer to the Sun could Earth’s orbit get and still be habitable?] - BBC Science Focus website</ref> If the sun even started to come close to a central point between the two (c.46 million miles) to be brought together with the moon, the immediate, worldwide heat would instantly cause the end of all life on Earth and scorch it beyond recognition, which would render the other apocalyptic events such as removing mountains ({{Quran|77|10}}), splitting the heaven ({{Quran|84|1}}), and stars falling ({{Quran|81|2}}), some of which are discussed in the sections below, essentially pointless.  


It is worth noting that the "darkening" of the moon in verse 8 is an Arabic word which in hadiths refers to a lunar or solar eclipse (in this case lunar). However, for a lunar eclipse to occur (when the earth's shadow is cast upon the moon) the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth and thus are not in any sense "brought together". Nor does brought together in verse 9 work as a reference to a solar eclipse (when the sun occasionally casts a shadow of the moon on the earth). The moon is invisible during the portion of a month when it can eclipse the sun since it must be on the daylit side of the earth, and hence the moon does not "darken" or itself become eclipsed (verse 8) as it passes between observers and the sun but rather its silhouette becomes visible.
It is worth noting that the "darkening" of the moon in verse 8 is an Arabic word which in hadiths refers to a lunar or solar eclipse (in this case lunar). However, for a lunar eclipse to occur (when the earth's shadow is cast upon the moon) the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth and thus are not in any sense "brought together". Nor does brought together in verse 9 work as a reference to a solar eclipse (when the sun occasionally casts a shadow of the moon on the earth). The moon is invisible during the portion of a month when it can eclipse the sun since it must be on the daylit side of the earth, and hence the moon does not "darken" or itself become eclipsed (verse 8) as it passes between observers and the sun but rather its silhouette becomes visible.
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The Qur'an (according to a common interpretation) and a hadith tradition state that the moon was miraculously split into two pieces and then, presumably, put back together again. There is, however, no scientific evidence suggesting that the moon was ever been split into two parts. Critics have pointed out that since the moon is visible to half the planet at any given time, there should exist numerous accounts from different parts of the world attesting to the event if it in fact happened. The Romans, Greeks, Egyptians, Persians, Chinese and Indians had avid astronomers who, critics maintain, should have seen this event and recorded it in their histories. The complete absence of any such historical record from other civilizations contemporary to Muhammad is thus presented as a strong indication that the event described in scripture never happened.
The Qur'an (according to a common interpretation) and a hadith tradition state that the moon was miraculously split into two pieces and then, presumably, put back together again. There is, however, no scientific evidence suggesting that the moon was ever been split into two parts. Critics have pointed out that since the moon is visible to half the planet at any given time, there should exist numerous accounts from different parts of the world attesting to the event if it in fact happened. The Romans, Greeks, Egyptians, Persians, Chinese and Indians had avid astronomers who, critics maintain, should have seen this event and recorded it in their histories. The complete absence of any such historical record from other civilizations contemporary to Muhammad is thus presented as a strong indication that the event described in scripture never happened.


{{Quote|{{Quran|54|1-3}}|The hour drew nigh and the moon did rend asunder. }}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|54|1|3}}|The Hour has come near, and the moon has split [in two]. And if they see a miracle, they turn away and say, "Passing magic." And they denied and followed their inclinations. But for every matter is a [time of] settlement. }}


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|6|60|387}}|Narrated Ibn Masud:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|6|60|387}}|Narrated Ibn Masud:


During the lifetime of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) the moon was split into two parts; one part remained over the mountain, and the other part went beyond the mountain. On that, Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Witness this miracle."
During the lifetime of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) the moon was split into two parts; one part remained over the mountain, and the other part went beyond the mountain. On that, Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Witness this miracle."
}}
}}Some modern Islamic scholars and academic scholars interpret the moon splitting verse as an eschatological prophecy. One reason is that the traditional interpretation contradicts the repeated claims that Muhammad was not sent with miracles, but only to warn people with the message (see also {{Quran|6|109}} and {{Quran|11|12}}):
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|7}}|The unbelievers say, "Why has God not sent him, (Muhammad), some miracles." (Muhammad), you are only a warner. For every nation there is a guide.}}
 


===Nature of the moon's light===
===Nature of the moon's light===
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{{Quote|{{Quran|24|35}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|24|35}}|
  Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things.}}
  Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things.}}Furthermore, an almost perfect opportunity to explain that the moons light is not it's own, but rather the sun's shining of it's surface, comes when Muhammad is asked about the phases of the moon. The 'phases/new moons' are caused by the sun only illuminating half of the moon at a time, and as the moon orbits the Earth, at some points the sunlit part of the moon can be seen from the Earth, and at other points, we can only see the parts of the Moon that are in shadow.<ref>See: ''[https://science.nasa.gov/moon/lunar-phases-and-eclipses/ NASA - Lunar Phases and Eclipses]'' for an explanation of the phenomena.</ref>


===Meteors as stars fired at devils===
Muhammad gives a response. Instead of any explanation which could verify itself scientifically, we are told it's for timekeeping and to mark when pilgrimage begins (i.e., something that was already in use)<ref>For example, see discussions on the pre-Islamic calendar, noting use of the moon and it's links to pilgrimage.
{{Main|Mistranslations_of_Islamic_Scripture_(English)#.2867:5.29_Shooting_stars|l1=Mistranslations of Qur'an 67:5}}


The Qur'an states that stars (''kawakib'' ٱلْكَوَاكِبِ) and/or lamps (''masabih'' مَصَٰبِيحَ) adorn the heavens and guard against devils.
Ioh, H. (2014). ''[https://brill.com/view/journals/arab/61/5/article-p471_1.xml The Calendar in Pre-Islamic Mecca]''. ''Arabica'', ''61''(5), 471-513. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341319</nowiki>
 
The Qur'an further asserts that Allah has made them (the stars/lamps) flaming missiles to ward away devils (or in some verses, jinn), who attempt to listen in on heavenly meetings (known as the Exalted Assembly). The Quranic concept has a close parallel in [[Pre-Islamic_Arab_Religion_in_Islam#Shooting_Stars_and_Eavesdropping_Shaytans|an earlier Jewish development from Zoroastrian mythology]]. Such myths are best understood as pre-modern attempts to explain the common phenomenon of meteors streaking across the night sky.


While stars are giant balls of gas thousands of times larger than the earth, meteors are small rocky masses or grains of debris which burn up after entering the earth's atmosphere. Many ancient people confused the two, as meteors look like stars that are streaking across the sky; this is why they were often called [[w:Meteoroid|shooting stars]] or falling stars. Large increases in meteors occur on a predictable schedule each year as the Earth's orbit passes through the stream of particles and debris left in the wake of a number of comets (or in a few cases, of asteroids). The most visible is usually the annual [[w:Perseids|Perseid meteor shower]] in August.
[https://www.academia.edu/114436617/The_Arabian_Calendar_and_an_Archeoastronomical_Investigation_of_the_Pre_Islamic_Pilgrimage_Shrines_at_Mecca ''The Arabian Calendar and an Archeoastronomical Investigation of the Pre-Islamic Pilgrimage Shrines at Mecca.''] Hisham Abad.
 
</ref>.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|37|6|10}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|189}}|<b>(Muhammad), they ask you about the different phases of the moon. Tell them that they are there to indicate to people the phases of time and the pilgrimage season.</b> It is not a righteous act to enter houses from the back. Righteousness is to be pious and enter the houses from the front door. Have fear of God so that perhaps you will have lasting happiness.}}
Indeed, We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment of stars '''And as protection''' against every rebellious devil [So] they may not listen to the exalted assembly [of angels] and are pelted from every side, Repelled; and for them is a constant punishment, Except one who snatches [some words] by theft, but they are pursued by a burning flame, piercing [in brightness].}}
 
The same Arabic words are used at the start of {{Quran|67|5}} as in {{Quran|37|6}} (زَيَّنَّا ٱلسَّمَآءَ ٱلدُّنْيَا), except that in {{Quran|67|5}} the word lamps is used instead of stars. The lamps that 'beautify the heaven' must refer to stars (and perhaps also the 5 visible planets), which are always there. Meteors, on the other hand, are now known to be distinct from the distant stars. They are often not much larger than grains of sand and only become visible for a second when they burn up, generating light in the Earth's atmosphere.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|67|5}}|
And verily We have beautified the world's heaven with lamps, '''and We have made them''' missiles for the devils, and for them We have prepared the doom of flame.}}
 
The word translated "missiles" is rujūman (رُجُومًا), which are things that are thrown, especially stones.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000214.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1048 رُجُومًا]</ref>  
 
A hadith in [[Sahih Muslim]] confirms that the 'pursuant flames / missiles' in the two verses refer to meteors which they saw shooting across the sky (see also {{Ibn Majah||1|1|194}}).
 
{{Quote|{{Muslim|26|5538}}|'Abdullah. Ibn 'Abbas reported:
A person from the Ansar who was amongst the Companions of Allah's Messenger (pbuh reported to me: As we were sitting during the night with Allah's Messenger (pbuh), a meteor shot gave a dazzling light. Allah's Messenger (pbuh) said: What did you say in the pre-Islamic days when there was such a shot (of meteor)? They said: Allah and His Messenger know best (the actual position), but we, however, used to say that that very night a great man had been born and a great man had died, whereupon Allah's Messenger pbuh) said: (These meteors) are shot neither at the death of anyone nor on the birth of anyone. Allah, the Exalted and Glorious, issues Command when He decides to do a thing. Then (the Angels) supporting the Throne sing His glory, then sing the dwellers of heaven who are near to them until this glory of God reaches them who are in the heaven of this world. Then those who are near the supporters of the Throne ask these supporters of the Throne: What your Lord has said? And they accordingly inform them what He says. Then the dwellers of heaven seek information from them until this information reaches the heaven of the world. In this process of transmission (the jinn snatches) what he manages to overhear and he carries it to his friends. And when the Angels see the jinn they attack them with meteors. If they narrate only which they manage to snatch that is correct but they alloy it with lies and make additions to it.}}
 
Other relevant Quran verses are {{Quran-range|55|33|35}} (flame of fire and smoke, though a slightly different context), {{Quran-range|15|16|18}}, and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|33|35}}|O company of jinn and mankind, if you are able to pass beyond the regions of the heavens and the earth, then pass. You will not pass except by authority [from Allah].
So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny? There will be sent upon you a flame of fire and smoke, and you will not defend yourselves.}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|16|18}}|And verily in the heaven we have set mansions of the stars, and We have beautified it for beholders. And We have guarded it from every outcast devil, save him who stealeth the hearing, and them doth a clear flame pursue.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|72|8|9}}|And we have sought [to reach] the heaven but found it filled with powerful guards and burning flames. And we used to sit therein in positions for hearing, but whoever listens now will find a burning flame lying in wait for him.}}
 
If the flaming missiles mentioned by the Quran are to be identified with meteors burning up in the Earth's atmosphere, this would locate the eavesdropping devils (or jinn) in the upper atmosphere too, which leaves no way for the (extremely distant) stars to serve as guards in this process as outlined in the verses. However, these verses would of course fit a relatively small universe as imagined by 7th century Arabs, in which a heavenly firmament is adorned with stars able to pelt shooting stars at any devils or jinn in their vicinity, seeming to cover interstellar distances in a flaming streak across the sky. This is further supported by {{Quran|21|32}} which describes the heaven as a guarded ceiling.
 
Two alternative interpretations popular in modern times are that the Quran is referring to [[w:Coronal mass ejections|coronal mass ejections]] (large eruptions of charged matter from the sun or other stars), or [[w:Cosmic rays|cosmic rays]] (high energy, sub-atomic particles travelling through interstellar space). However, coronal mass ejections move slowly in cosmic terms, disperse over distance and do not come from surprise directions ({{Quran|37|8}} states that the devils are pelted from every side, and pursued by a piercing flame if they escape with anything they overheard). Cosmic rays do not emit light as they travel through space and therefore nor could these be the flaming missiles of fire and smoke in the Quran.
 
Stars are an average 5 light years away from each other in our galaxy<ref>[https://public.nrao.edu/ask/what-is-the-average-distance-between-stars-in-our-galaxy/ What is the Average Distance Between Stars in our Galaxy?] - US National Radio Astronomy Observatory website</ref>. For context, a light year is the distance light travels in one year, which is 5.88 trillion miles/9.46 trillion kilometres.<ref>[https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/faq/26/what-is-a-light-year/ What is a light-year?] - NASA website</ref> This again makes them an odd choice for a protection/guard, with trillions of miles/kilometers of mostly empty space between them.
 
On a separate note, though stars are described as an ornament or beauty for the sky in {{Quran|37|6}}, {{Quran|15|16}} and {{Quran|67|5}}, there are an estimated minimum c.100 septillion stars in the known universe<ref>[https://universe.nasa.gov/stars/basics Stars] - NASA website</ref>, but only a few thousand are actually visible to the naked eye.<ref>[https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe How many stars are there in the Universe?] - ESA website</ref>


===The entire heaven has a night and day===
===The entire heaven has a night and day===
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The word "he built it" in v. 27 (banāhā) also occurs in {{Quran|50|6}}, which says regarding the heaven (singular) that Allah "built it" and "adorned it" (wazayyannāhā), a word which in other verses refers to the stars adorning the lowest heaven ({{Quran|37|6}}, {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|67|5}}, as discussed in the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Earth created before stars|Earth created before stars]] section above).
The word "he built it" in v. 27 (banāhā) also occurs in {{Quran|50|6}}, which says regarding the heaven (singular) that Allah "built it" and "adorned it" (wazayyannāhā), a word which in other verses refers to the stars adorning the lowest heaven ({{Quran|37|6}}, {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|67|5}}, as discussed in the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Earth created before stars|Earth created before stars]] section above).
This is particularly problematic for apologists that claim the closest sky/heaven is the visible universe (based off those verses that it is adorned with stars).
==== Day and night as veils pulled across the heavens, not from the Sun or the Earths movement ====
As the above states, night and day are a property of the sky/heavens rather than a specific phenomena only occurring almost entirely on the surface of the Earth; as one side of it moves (both via rotation on it's own axis and via the movement as it orbits the sun) to face away from the sun. The Qur'ans description extends to the night covering/veiling the day ({{Quran|7|54}}) which then follows the night. And god 'strips' the night of the day ({{Quran|36|37}}).
In Q6:96 and Q10:5, we are told that the sun and moon are lights created for timekeeping, with both being mentioned in the same way - but not once is the main function of the sun for humans listed; i.e. as the actual source of daylight.
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|96}}|[He is] the cleaver of daybreak and has made the night for rest and the sun and moon for calculation. That is the determination of the Exalted in Might, the Knowing.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|10|5}}|It is He who made the sun a radiance and the moon a light, and ordained its phases that you might know the number of years and the calculation [of time]. Allah did not create all that except with justice. He elaborates the signs for a people who have knowledge.}}
On top of this the day and night are swimming in orbit themselves, along with the sun and the moon in Q21:33 and Q36:40, where they are mentioned as distinct entities.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|It is He who created the night and the day, the sun and the moon, each swimming in an orbit.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|Neither can the sun overtake the moon, nor the night outpace the day: Each of them keeps coursing in its orbit.}}
And finally that the daylight actually 'reveals' the sun, and the night 'enshrouds' it, which makes no sense as daylight is solely from the sun, and night is simply a result of it's absence on one side of the Earths surface.
{{Quote|{{Quran|91|1-4}}|By the sun and its brightness,
And [by] the moon when it follows it, by the day when it reveals it,
And [by] the night when it covers it
Which the day reveals the sun, and the night enshrouds it}}
This clear separation of the sun (and moon) as a light for timekeeping that is separate from the 'veils/covers' of day and night 'swimming in orbit' has lead to some classical commentators to believe that the day is not caused by the sun at all, but is rather a totally separate event in the sky.<ref>For example, the famous tafsir '''al-Tafsir al-Kabi''r ' of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 1209) (often referred to as Al-Razi), he explains on his [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=4&tSoraNo=7&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&Page=22&Size=1&LanguageId=1 ''commentary on Verse 7:54''], that the sun has two types of movements; one in a day, and one in a year. ''He says that night and day, however, are not due to the movement of the sun, but rather to the movement of the great orb/sky which is also Allah's throne''. Angels are said to separately move the heavenly bodies.</ref>


===The sky/heaven as a ceiling===
===The sky/heaven as a ceiling===
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{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran}}
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran}}


A common myth at the time of the Quran's composition was that the sky or heavens were held up with pillars, which is also a Biblical motif. While classical Muslim scholars often believed in a dome shaped heaven, some academic scholars have argued that the Quranic heavens are flat, stacked expanses (see main article). These heavens are like roofs (saqf {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|52|5}}), a building/edifice/tent (binaan {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|40|64}}), a ceiling (samk {{Quran|79|28}}), in layers ({{Quran|71|15}} and {{Quran|67|3}}), while {{Quran|13|2}} further emphasizes this image by pointing out that, unlike what one would expect with an Arabian tent, the roof that is the sky is without visible pillars (perhaps phrased with deliberate ambiguity). Reinforcing the 2 dimensional imagery, {{Quran|81|11}} adds that the sky is like a covering that can be 'stripped away', while {{Quran|21|104}} states that it will eventually be rolled or folded up like a parchment and {{Quran|39|67}} says that the heavens will then be held in Allah's hand. This will occur after it has been slit (furijat {{Quran|77|9}}; the same Arabic noun is used in {{Quran|50|6}} where the listeners are expected to notice that the heaven has no slits, reinforcing the canopy metaphor), rent asunder with clouds ({{Quran|25|25}}), split (inshaqqat {{Quran|55|37}}, {{Quran|84|1}}, {{Quran|69|16}} with angels appearing at its edges {{Quran|69|17}}).
A common myth at the time of the Quran's composition was that the sky or heavens were held up with pillars, which is also a Biblical motif. While classical Muslim scholars often believed in a dome shaped heaven, some academic scholars have argued that the Quranic heavens are flat, stacked expanses (see main article). These heavens are like roofs (saqf {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|52|5}}), a building/edifice/tent (binaan {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|40|64}}), a ceiling (samk {{Quran|79|28}}), in layers ({{Quran|71|15}} and {{Quran|67|3}}), while {{Quran|13|2}} adds that the heavens were raised without visible pillars (perhaps phrased with deliberate ambiguity).  
 
Reinforcing the 2 dimensional imagery, {{Quran|81|11}} adds that the sky is like a covering that can be 'stripped away', while {{Quran|21|104}} states that it will eventually be rolled or folded up like a parchment and {{Quran|39|67}} says that the heavens will then be held in Allah's hand. This will occur after it has been slit (furijat {{Quran|77|9}}; the same Arabic noun is used in {{Quran|50|6}} where the listeners are expected to notice that the heaven has no slits, reinforcing the canopy metaphor), rent asunder with clouds ({{Quran|25|25}}), split (inshaqqat {{Quran|55|37}}, {{Quran|84|1}}, {{Quran|69|16}} with angels appearing at its edges {{Quran|69|17}}).
The heaven will become as gateways ({{Quran|78|19}}, a possibility also alluded to in {{Quran-range|15|13|15}}).
The heaven will become as gateways ({{Quran|78|19}}, a possibility also alluded to in {{Quran-range|15|13|15}}).


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===The sky/heaven as a guarded ceiling===
===The sky/heaven as a guarded ceiling===


{{Quran|21|32}} says Allah made the sky/heaven a guarded ceiling, and is most likely related to the verses about devils chased by shooting stars (meteors) that guard the lowest heaven. One of those verses, {{Quran-range|37|6|10}} discussed above, contains a noun meaning "guard" from the same Arabic root (hafiza) as the verb in this verse.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000237.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 601 حفظ]</ref>   
{{Quran|21|32}} says Allah made the sky/heaven a guarded ceiling (but is not itself a guard or protection, which is a common misreading). This is most likely related to the verses about devils chased by shooting stars (meteors) that guard the lowest heaven. One of those verses, {{Quran-range|37|6|10}} discussed above, contains a noun meaning "guard" from the same Arabic root (hafiza) as the verb in this verse.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000237.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 601 حفظ]</ref>   
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|
And We made the sky a protected ceiling, but they, from its signs, are turning away.}}


Interestingly, modern science has revealed that the things by which the sky / heaven is said to be guarded can also pose a threat to living things on Earth - asteroids and meteorites have penetrated the atmosphere and hit the earth throughout the course of history. This includes the [[w:Chicxulub crater|massive meteorite]] that hit near the [[w:Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán Peninsula]] 65 million years which killed off numerous species, including most dinosaurs.  
Interestingly, modern science has revealed that the things by which the sky / heaven is said to be guarded can also pose a threat to living things on Earth - asteroids and meteorites have penetrated the atmosphere and hit the earth throughout the course of history. This includes the [[w:Chicxulub crater|massive meteorite]] that hit near the [[w:Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán Peninsula]] 65 million years which killed off numerous species, including most dinosaurs.  


More recently in 2013, in Chelyabinsk, Russia, a house-sized meteoroid entered the atmosphere at over 11 miles / 18 kilometers per second and blew apart 14 miles / 23 kilometers above the ground, having penetrated the Earth's atmosphere. The explosion released the energy equivalent of around 440,000 tons of TNT and generated a shock wave that blew out windows over 200 square miles (518 square kilometers) and damaged buildings. More than 1,600 people were injured in the blast, mostly due to broken glass.<ref>[https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/meteors-and-meteorites/in-depth/ Meteors & Meteorites] - NASA website</ref>  
More recently in 2013, in Chelyabinsk, Russia, a house-sized meteoroid entered the atmosphere at over 11 miles / 18 kilometers per second and blew apart 14 miles / 23 kilometers above the ground, having penetrated the Earth's atmosphere. The explosion released the energy equivalent of around 440,000 tons of TNT and generated a shock wave that blew out windows over 200 square miles (518 square kilometers) and damaged buildings. More than 1,600 people were injured in the blast, mostly due to broken glass.<ref>[https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/meteors-and-meteorites/in-depth/ Meteors & Meteorites] - NASA website</ref>  
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|
And We made the sky a protected ceiling, but they, from its signs, are turning away.}}


===The sky/heaven as something that can fall===
===The sky/heaven as something that can fall===
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The structure of space-time is such that nothing, not even stars, can move faster than the velocity of light. That is, even if the stars were to move close to light speed across the sky, their apparent motion would be so slight relative to their distance that it would nonetheless be imperceptible to the naked eye. Moreover, as many visible stars are hundreds of light years away (the nearest star is more than four light years away), the light from such events would take years to reach our eyes. Indeed, many stars still visible in the sky ceased to exist centuries ago and it is only their light which is just now reaching the Earth.
The structure of space-time is such that nothing, not even stars, can move faster than the velocity of light. That is, even if the stars were to move close to light speed across the sky, their apparent motion would be so slight relative to their distance that it would nonetheless be imperceptible to the naked eye. Moreover, as many visible stars are hundreds of light years away (the nearest star is more than four light years away), the light from such events would take years to reach our eyes. Indeed, many stars still visible in the sky ceased to exist centuries ago and it is only their light which is just now reaching the Earth.
Similarly the stars are said to disperse/scatter (intatharat انْتَثَرَتْ) on judgement day, which classical commentaries have also linked to dispersing/falling on Earth,<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/82.2 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs Verse 82.2]''. Ibn Abbas. Unknown date.</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/82.2 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn Verse 82.2.]'' Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce).
</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/82.1 Tafsir ibn Kathir Verse 82.2.]'' Ibn Kathir <abbr>c.</abbr> 1300 – 1373.</ref> along with the above verse 81:2.<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/81.2 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs Verse 81.2]''. Ibn Abbas. Unknown date.</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/81.2 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn Verse 81.2.]'' Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce).</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|82|2}}|when the stars are scattered,}}


===The cause of shadows changing length===
===The cause of shadows changing length===
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===All organisms created in pairs===
===All organisms created in pairs===
The Quran states that all beings are created in pairs. However, modern science has revealed that not every creature procreates or reproduces through a male and female sexual relationship. The [[w:Desert grassland whiptail lizard|whiptail lizard]] in the U.S. Southwest, Mexico, and South America, for instance, is an all-females species which reproduces by [[w:parthenogenesis|parthenogenesis]]. [[w:virus|Viruses]] (if considered a life form) reproduce using a host's DNA and are neither female nor male. [[w:Bacteria|Bacteria]] reproduce by cell division. [[w:Fungus|Fungus]] can reproduce either asexually or sexually with thousands of genders. Many species of plants also reproduce either asexually or through [[w:Pollination|pollination]]. Hermaphrodites of all species also do not appear to fit in to this dichotomy.  
The Quran states that all beings are created in pairs. However, modern science has revealed that not every creature procreates or reproduces through a male and female sexual relationship.
 
The [[w:Desert grassland whiptail lizard|whiptail lizard]] in the U.S. Southwest, Mexico, and South America, for instance, is an all-females species which reproduces by [[w:parthenogenesis|parthenogenesis]].
 
[[w:virus|Viruses]] (if considered a life form) reproduce using a host's DNA and are neither female nor male. [[w:Bacteria|Bacteria]] reproduce by cell division.
 
[[w:Fungus|Fungus]] can reproduce either asexually or sexually with thousands of genders.
 
Many species of plants also reproduce either asexually or through [[w:Pollination|pollination]].
 
Those who are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex intersex] (including those people with both male and female sexual organs and body types) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite hermaphrodites] of all species also do not appear to fit in to this dichotomy. This has led to discriminatory rulings from Islamic scholars, not allowing those with ambiguous sexes to get married for example, due to the unknowingness of breaking a gender-based rule.<ref>See for example rulings from sheiks and scholars listed on IslamQA in response to the question: ''[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/114670/ruling-on-marrying-a-man-who-is-intersex-or-impotent-and-the-difference-between-them Ruling on marrying a man who is intersex or impotent, and the difference between them]''  </ref> 


{{Quote|{{Quran|51|49}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|51|49}}|
And of '''every thing''' We have created pairs: That ye may receive instruction. }}
And of '''every thing''' We have created pairs: That ye may receive instruction. }}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|36}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|36}}|
Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs '''all things''' that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. }}
Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs '''all things''' that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. }}{{Quote|{{Quran|92|3}}|by Him who created the male and the female:}}{{Quote|{{Quran|75|39}}|Then He made of him two kinds, the male and the female.}}


===Fetus in three layers of darkness===
===Fetus in three layers of darkness===
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{{Quote|{{Quran|22|46}}|So have they not traveled through the earth and '''have hearts by which to reason''' and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are '''the hearts which are within the breasts'''.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|22|46}}|So have they not traveled through the earth and '''have hearts by which to reason''' and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are '''the hearts which are within the breasts'''.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|17|46}}|And We place upon their hearts veils lest they should understand it, and in their ears a deafness; and when thou makest mention of thy Lord alone in the Qur'an, they turn their backs in aversion. }}
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|46}}|And We place upon their hearts veils lest they should <b>understand</b> it, and in their ears a deafness; and when thou makest mention of thy Lord alone in the Qur'an, they turn their backs in aversion. }}


{{Quote|{{Quran|11|5}}|Lo! now they fold up their breasts that they may hide (their thoughts) from Him. At the very moment when they cover themselves with their clothing, Allah knoweth that which they keep hidden and that which they proclaim. Lo! He is Aware of what is in the breasts (of men). }}
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|5}}|Lo! now they fold up their <b>breasts</b>  that they may hide (their thoughts) from Him. At the very moment when they cover themselves with their clothing, Allah knoweth that which they keep hidden and that which they proclaim. Lo! He is Aware of what is in the <b>breasts</b> (of men). }}


===Source and purity of Milk===
===Characteristics of Milk===
The Qur'an states that milk is produced in the body somewhere between excretions and blood. The mammary glands, where milk is produced and stored, are, however, not located near the intestines, which is where excrement is stored. Many kinds of cattle and goat milk needs processing or pasteurization before they can safely be consumed; the milk is often infected with bacteria and other micro-organisms. A significant number of humans are lactose intolerant and unable to digest milk without experiencing abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting. These realities appear to challenge the Qur'anic notion that milk is 'pure' and 'agreeable'.
The Qur'an states that milk is produced in the body somewhere between excretions and blood. The mammary glands, where milk is produced and stored, are, however, not located near the intestines, which is where excrement is stored. Sometimes cattle and goat milk needs processing or pasteurization before it can safely be consumed; the milk is often infected with bacteria and other micro-organisms. A significant number of humans [[w:Lactose_intolerance|lactose intolerant]], especially in some regions of the world, and are unable to digest much milk without experiencing abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting. This occurs in adults who lack genes for lactase enzyme persistance which maintains lactose tolerance beyond childhood and is a relatively recent evolutionary development. These realities appear to challenge the Qur'anic notion that milk is 'pure' and 'agreeable' to anyone who drinks it.


{{Quote|{{Quran|16|66}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|66}}|
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===Flat Earth===
===Flat Earth===
{{Main|Islamic_Views_on_the_Shape_of_the_Earth|l1=Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth}}
{{Main|Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth}}The Qur'an describes a flat-Earth cosmography. The later idea that Islamic scriptures themselves indicated a spherical Earth was a creative act of reinterpretation as this view became more prominent due to advances in astronomy. Attempts to explain Quranic verses about the Earth only in terms of local flatness at a human level, non-literal readings, and/or by adding context to them never explicitly stated, are often challenged by critics, as discussed in the [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth|main article]], which also contains further evidence and verses beyond those listed here.


====Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles====
====Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles====
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====Facing toward Mecca====
====Facing toward Mecca====


The Qur'an instructs Muslims to face the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca when they pray. In consideration of the roundness of the Earth, scholars developed the great circle method to carry out this instruction. However, a number of problems have been suggested: one facing Mecca also necessarily has their back turned to it (a display of disrespect which is roundly prohibited in Islam), and one directly opposite Mecca on the globe may pray in any direction. A similar consideration leads North American Muslims, who live in the hemisphere of this antipode of Mecca, to instead prefer the rhumb-line technique since the great circle method would cause people north and south in the Americas to face away from each as they pray (great circle lines from this antipode diverge cross the continent before they start to converge again when they enter the hemisphere of Mecca). Finally, Astronauts in Earth's orbit or on the Moon and Mars would are essentially unable to follow these instructions (suggesting that the author of the Qur'an did not have such future realities in mind).
The Qur'an instructs Muslims to face the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca when they pray. In consideration of the roundness of the Earth, scholars developed the great circle method to carry out this instruction. However, a number of problems have been suggested: one facing Mecca also necessarily has their back turned to it (a display of disrespect which is roundly prohibited in Islam), and one directly opposite Mecca on the globe may pray in any direction.  
 
Another issue leads many North American Muslims, who live in the hemisphere of this antipode of Mecca, to instead prefer the rhumb-line technique (i.e. a straight line on a standard Mercator flat map projection). This is in disagreement with those who follow the great circle method, which causes people north and south in the Americas to face away from each as they pray (great circle lines from this antipode diverge cross the Americas before they start to converge again when they enter the hemisphere of Mecca), and requires much of North America to pray northwards, which to many people feels awkward. Finally, Astronauts in Earth's orbit or on the Moon and Mars would are essentially unable to follow these instructions (suggesting that the author of the Qur'an did not have such future realities in mind).


{{Quote|{{Quran|2|149}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|149}}|
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{{Quote|{{Quran|88|20}}|And at the Earth, how it is spread out?}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|88|20}}|And at the Earth, how it is spread out?}}


Even far beyond the 8th/9th century CE when the Abbasid Caliphs translated Ptolemy's Almagest (a 2nd-century mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent motions of the stars and planetary paths - stating the Earth is a sphere)<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Almagest Almagest] - Encyclopedia Britannica website</ref> from Greek at least five times, once into Syriac, and the others into Arabic,<ref>{{citation| chapter=Islamic Astronomy| title=Astronomy before the Telescope| first=David A.| last=King| pages=143-174| location=London| publisher=British Museum Press| year=1996| url=https://www.academia.edu/attachments/55944098/download_file?s=portfolio| editor-last=Walker| editor-first=Christopher| ISBN=978-0714127330}}</ref> the issue was far from settled.  
Despite Muslim encounters with Greek astronomy in the 8th century CE (see [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth]]), a flat earth interpretation persisted for many more centuries in some circles.


For example, the Qur'anic commentary of al-Jalalayn (composed by the two “Jalals”; Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d.1459 CE) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d.1505 CE) - i.e. the 15th/16th century) agrees with this understanding of the verse, saying that legal scholars at his time agree that the earth is flat and not spherical.
For example, the Qur'anic commentary of al-Jalalayn (composed by the two “Jalals”; Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d.1459 CE) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d.1505 CE) - i.e. the 15th/16th century) agrees with this understanding of the verse, saying that legal scholars at his time agree that the earth is flat and not spherical.


{{Quote|1=[http://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=88&tAyahNo=20&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn for verse 88:20]|2=And the earth, how it was laid out flat?, and thus infer from this the power of God, exalted be He, and His Oneness? The commencing with the [mention of] camels is because they are closer in contact with it [the earth] than any other [animal]. As for His words sutihat, 'laid out flat', this on a literal reading suggests '''that the earth is flat, which is the opinion of most of the scholars''' of the [revealed] Law, and '''not a sphere as astronomers (ahl al-hay'a) have it''', even if this [latter] does not contradict any of the pillars of the Law.}}
{{Quote|1=[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=88&tAyahNo=20&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 88:20] (See [https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/88/20 here] for the Arabic)|2=And the earth how it was laid out flat? and thus infer from this the power of God exalted be He and His Oneness? The commencing with the mention of camels is because they are closer in contact with it the earth than any other animal. '''As for His words sutihat ‘laid out flat’ this on a literal reading suggests that the earth is flat which is the opinion of''' most [the word "most" is not included in the original Arabic: "وعليه علماء الشرع"; see citation for full text] '''of the scholars of the revealed Law and not a sphere as astronomers ahl al-hay’a have it''' even if this latter does not contradict any of the pillars of the Law.}}


====Earth as like carpet====
====Earth as like carpet====
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===Permanent barrier between "the two seas" of fresh and salt water===
===Permanent barrier between "the two seas" of fresh and salt water===
When a fresh water river flows into the sea or ocean, there is a transition region in between. This transition region is called an estuary where the fresh water remains temporarily separated from the salt water. However, this separation is not absolute, is not permanent, and the different salinity levels between the two bodies of water eventually homogenize. The Qur'an, by contrast, suggests that there is a separation between two seas, one salty and one fresh water, maintained by some sort of divine barrier placed between them.  
When a fresh water river flows into the sea or ocean, there is a transition region in between. This transition region is called an estuary where the fresh water remains temporarily separated from the salt water. However, this separation is not absolute, is not permanent, and the different salinity levels between the two bodies of water eventually homogenize. The Qur'an, by contrast, suggests that there is a separation between two seas, one salty and one fresh water, maintained by some sort of divine barrier placed between them.  
Furthemore, {{Quran|55|20}} quoted below states that coral emerge from both seas. However, coral are found only in salt water oceans, and exposure to freshwater leads to coral bleaching.<ref>[https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/corals-and-coral-reefs Corals and Coral Reefs] - Smithsonian Institution website</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|25|53}}| It is He Who has let free the two bodies of flowing water: One palatable and sweet, and the other salt and bitter; yet has He made a barrier between them, '''a partition that is forbidden to be passed'''. }}
{{Quote|{{Quran|25|53}}| It is He Who has let free the two bodies of flowing water: One palatable and sweet, and the other salt and bitter; yet has He made a barrier between them, '''a partition that is forbidden to be passed'''. }}
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And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,}}
And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,}}


The word 'he has cast' is ''alqa'' (lam-qaf-ya), which in this form (Arabic verb form IV) is frequently used elsewhere in the Quran to mean throw or cast.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000266.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3012 أَلْقَىٰ]<BR />See paragraph number 4 for the form IV verb definition.</ref></ref> It is the same word as is used in {{Quran|3|44}} when lots are cast using pens (it would be easy to imagine that mountains were similarly scattered, though perhaps it should not be taken too literally in this context), and {{Quran|12|10}} when the prophet Yusuf is cast down into the well, and in {{Quran|20|20}} when Moses casts down his staff, which becomes a snake. The implication of such verses is that mountains were a special act of creation rather them being a byproduct of a larger and ongoing process (tectonic plate movement).
The word 'he has cast' is ''alqa'' (lam-qaf-ya), which in this form (Arabic verb form IV) is frequently used elsewhere in the Quran to mean throw or cast.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000266.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3012 أَلْقَىٰ]<BR />See paragraph number 4 for the form IV verb definition.</ref> It is the same word as is used in {{Quran|3|44}} when lots are cast using pens (it would be easy to imagine that mountains were similarly scattered, though perhaps it should not be taken too literally in this context), and {{Quran|12|10}} when the prophet Yusuf is cast down into the well, and in {{Quran|20|20}} when Moses casts down his staff, which becomes a snake. The implication of such verses is that mountains were a special act of creation rather them being a byproduct of a larger and ongoing process (tectonic plate movement).


===Chests contract with altitude===
===Chests contract with altitude===
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The same verb for holding (amsaka) appears in {{Quran|22|65}} and {{Quran|35|41}} with regard to Allah holding the sky from falling to earth. As so often with the Quran, modern academic scholarship has found a close parallel in 6th century CE Syriac literature. Joseph of Sarugh (d. 521 CE) similarly stated that only the action of God held up the sky and repeatedly used birdflight as another illustration of the same divine action in words very similar to the Quranic verse. For details, see [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur'an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Allah_keeps_the_heavens_and_the_birds_from_falling|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].
The same verb for holding (amsaka) appears in {{Quran|22|65}} and {{Quran|35|41}} with regard to Allah holding the sky from falling to earth. As so often with the Quran, modern academic scholarship has found a close parallel in 6th century CE Syriac literature. Joseph of Sarugh (d. 521 CE) similarly stated that only the action of God held up the sky and repeatedly used birdflight as another illustration of the same divine action in words very similar to the Quranic verse. For details, see [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur'an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Allah_keeps_the_heavens_and_the_birds_from_falling|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].
==History==
==History==
{{Main|Historical Errors in the Quran}}
{{Main|Historical Errors in the Quran}}
Below are a selection of historical errors found in the Quran, a more complete list is located in the article dedicated to [[Historical Errors in the Quran|historical errors in the Quran]].
Below are a selection of historical errors found in the Quran, a more complete list is located in the article dedicated to [[Historical Errors in the Quran|historical errors in the Quran]].


===Massive wall of iron===
===Massive wall of iron built to trap Gog and Magog until judgement day===
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}
The Qur'an presents a version of the Syrian legend of Alexander the Great as a great king who helps a tribe of people build a massive wall of iron between two mountains. The Quran then states, along with the hadith, that this wall and the tribes it traps will remain in place until the Day of Judgement.  Modern satellites and near comprehensive exploration of the Earth's surface, however, have yet to reveal any trace of such massive structure.


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|96|97}}|
The Qur'an states that two dangerous tribes, Gog and Magog, were trapped behind a massive wall of Iron erected by Dhu'l-Qarnayn and will only be let free on the day of Judgement. However, no such wall or tribes have ever been found despite the advent of global satellite imagery.
"Bring me blocks of iron." At length, when he had '''filled up the space between the two steep mountain-sides''', He said, "Blow (with your bellows)" Then, when he had made it (red) as fire, he said: "Bring me, that I may pour over it, molten lead." Thus were they made powerless to scale it or to dig through it.
 
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|96-101}}|Bring me pieces of iron!’ When he had levelled up between the flanks, he said, ‘Blow!’ When he had turned it into fire, he said, ‘Bring me molten copper to pour over it.’
So they could neither scale it, nor could they make a hole in it. He said, ‘This is a mercy from my Lord. But when the promise of my Lord is fulfilled, He will level it; and my Lord’s promise is true.’
That day We shall let them surge over one another, the Trumpet will be blown, and We shall gather them all, and on that day We shall bring hell into view visibly for the faithless.
Those whose eyes were blind to My remembrance and who could not hear.}}
 
The trumpet blowing in {{Quran|18|99}} is referred to many other times in the Qur'an as happening on judgement day (see {{Quran|27|87}}, {{Quran|69|13}} and {{Quran|39|68}}), with the word 'yawm' يوم being used in Q18:99 and 18:100, meaning on that ''day''<ref>[http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/search/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85?cat=50 Lane's Lexicon dictionary - يوم]</ref> specifically. Another passage confirms that this wall was supposedly still intact and that its future opening will be associated with other apocalyptic events.


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|96}}|Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|95-97}}|But there is a ban on any population which We have destroyed: that they shall not return,
Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill.  
Then will the true promise draw nigh (of fulfilment): then behold! the eyes of the Unbelievers will fixedly stare in horror: "Ah! Woe to us! we were indeed heedless of this; nay, we truly did wrong!"}}


===Mary as part of the Trinity===
===Mary as part of the Trinity===
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===Noah's worldwide flood===
===Noah's worldwide flood===
''Main article: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Noah's worldwide flood|Historical Errors in the Quran - Noah's worldwide flood]]''


The Quran contains a version of the worldwide-flood story widespread in ancient near-Eastern mythology and most famously found in the Bible. Since geological evidence suggests such a flood never took place, some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Several elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them. Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark.
The Quran contains a version of the worldwide-flood story widespread in ancient near-Eastern mythology and most famously found in the Bible. Since geological evidence suggests such a flood never took place, some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Several elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them. Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark.
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{{Quote|{{Quran|2|31}}|And He taught Adam the names - all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and said, "Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful."}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|31}}|And He taught Adam the names - all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and said, "Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful."}}


The Qur'an, in multiple instances, states that the first humans "Adam and Eve" spoke to each other in some kind of language, and that God told them the names of 'all things'. Modern linguistics has revealed, however, that the type of sentences constructed in the Qur'an were not spoken by humans until over 100,000 years after the first humans evolved. The language of the first humans would be incomprehensible to us and they would not be able to express the kinds of sentences that Adam and Eve do in the Qur'an. The earliest forms of human communication were entirely different in nature from the sorts of languages humans have used in the last several thousands of years.
{{Quran-range|55|3|4}} states that Allah created man and taught him clear speech, while {{Quran|2|31}} quoted above states that Allah taught Adam the names of everything. Adam and his wife are both spoken to and speak articulate sentences with complex symbolic thought, for example {{Quran|7|23}}, and their sons have a fully articulate conversation in {{Quran-range|5|27|31}}.
 
While the species Homo sapiens arose c. 300,000 years ago, the [[w:Origin_of_language|earliest use of language]] is extremely uncertain and may even predate this. However, the earliest evidence for symbolic thought (necessary for complex utterances) dates to c. 100,000 years ago, consisting of very simple engraved markings on pieces of orche and egg shells,<ref>Tylén, K. et al. (2020) [https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1910880117 The evolution of early symbolic behavior in Homo sapiens] Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Volume 117, Issue 9, p.4578-4584</ref> and an explosion of symbolic thought occured around 40,000 years ago.<ref>[https://www.amnh.org/explore/videos/humans/symbolic-thinking Thinking in Symbols] American Museum of Natural History website, 2012</ref>


Some 1.9 million species of plants and animals have been identified and named, out of some 8.7 million that may actually exist<ref name="plos">{{cite journal | author= Mora, C.| title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?|journal=[[PLoS Biology]]|date=August 23, 2011|url=http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |pmid=21886479 |pmc=3160336 |volume=9 |pages=e1001127|display-authors=etal}}</ref>. Millions more have become extinct. Far more numerous are the living objects, galaxies, the countless stars and planets of the universe. In light of this, it is not clear what is meant by the idea that Allah taught Adam 'all the names', especially since the first humans do not appear to have been extremely knowledgeable.
Some 1.9 million species of plants and animals have been identified and named, out of some 8.7 million that may actually exist<ref name="plos">{{cite journal | author= Mora, C.| title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?|journal=[[PLoS Biology]]|date=August 23, 2011|url=http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |pmid=21886479 |pmc=3160336 |volume=9 |pages=e1001127|display-authors=etal}}</ref>. Millions more have become extinct. Far more numerous are the living objects, galaxies, the countless stars and planets of the universe. In light of this, it is not clear what is meant by the idea that Allah taught Adam 'all the names', especially since the first humans do not appear to have been extremely knowledgeable.


Incidentally, the element in the Quranic verse in which the angels could not name animals when Adam was a tale invented by a Rabbi. See the relevant section on that topic in the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].
Incidentally, the element in the Quranic verse in which the angels could not name animals after had Adam done so was a tale invented by a Rabbi. See the relevant section on that topic in the article [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#The_angels_could_not_name_animals_when_Adam_was_created|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].


===Arabic as eminently accessible===
===Arabic as eminently accessible===
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{{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|28|29}}|And [mention] Lot, when he said to his people, "Indeed, you commit such immorality as no one has preceded you with from among the worlds. Indeed, you approach men and obstruct the road and commit in your meetings [every] evil." And the answer of his people was not but they said, "Bring us the punishment of Allah, if you should be of the truthful."}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|28|29}}|And [mention] Lot, when he said to his people, "Indeed, you commit such immorality as no one has preceded you with from among the worlds. Indeed, you approach men and obstruct the road and commit in your meetings [every] evil." And the answer of his people was not but they said, "Bring us the punishment of Allah, if you should be of the truthful."}}
=== The testimony of a woman is worth half of a man's ===
''Main Articles: [[Islam and Women|Islam and Women - WikiIslam]] and [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Women]]''
There is no proof that women lie more than men, in fact to the contrary there is research showing that while dishonesty or intelligence is not caused by the sex of a person, certain studies suggest that men tend to lie more on average as a group than women.<ref>''[https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820923 Frontiers | Face-to-Face Lying: Gender and Motivation to Deceive (frontiersin.org)]''. Pekka Santtila. Judee K Burgoon. Norah E. Dunbar. 2022. Front. Psychol., 22 March 2022 Sec. Forensic and Legal Psychology Volume 13 - 2022 | <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820923</nowiki>
This research article written and reviewed by three university professors covers previous academic studies on this topic, they quote e.g. a meta-analysis on honesty where men were 4% more dishonest than women (Gerlach et al., 2019), and see the General Discussion section for an overview of their findings (confirming men lie more on average) on this topic and it's nuances. </ref> Men also commit crime in much higher rates than women across the world,<ref>''[https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/legal-and-political-magazines/gender-and-crime Gender and Crime | Encyclopedia.com].'' Gender and Crime. Law. Legal and political magazines.
Article written by Professors Darrell Steffensmeier and Emilie Allan.</ref> and this is not just limited to violent crime.<ref>E.g. Fraud: [https://www.statista.com/statistics/461354/distribution-of-perpetrators-of-fraud-cases-by-gender/ ''Distribution of perpetrators of fraud cases worldwide in 2020 and 2021, by gender'']. Statica. Einar H. Dyvik, Aug 5, 2022.
And white collar crime inc. corporate fraud: [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-do-men-commit-more-crimes-than-women-prof-k-jaishankar-ps45c ''Why do men commit more crimes than women?'']  Prof (Dr.) K Jaishankar. Principal Director & Professor of Criminology - IIJPS. Jan 13  2024.</ref> Women are also not less intelligent than men.<ref>E.g. There is no difference between men and women in general intelligence: Hunt, Earl B. (2010). [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Human_Intelligence/DwO4TtKAiCoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA389&printsec=frontcover ''Human Intelligence''.] Cambridge University Press. p. 389. ISBN <bdi>978-1139495110</bdi>.
Similarly ''<nowiki/>'"there are both differences and similarities in the cognitive abilities of women and men, but there is no data-based rationale to support the idea that either is the smarter or superior sex."''' Halpern, Diane F. (2001). "[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Women_and_Gender_Two_Vol/guzbKF8vTVcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA964&printsec=frontcover ''Sex Difference Research – Cognitive Abilities'']". In Worell, Judith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Women and Gender. Elsevier Science. p. 964. <nowiki>ISBN 0080548490</nowiki>. ''For a summary see pp 963 - 967.''
Women consistently beat men on average in grades at school: [https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/09/why-girls-get-better-grades-than-boys-do/380318/ ''Why Girls Tend to Get Better Grades Than Boys Do''] - The Atlantic. Education. Enrico Gnaulati. 2014
</ref> Yet the Quran tells us the testimony of a women is worth half of a man's in a legal context (and one can easily take other non-legal inferences from this verse).
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|282}}|O you who have faith! When you contract a loan for a specified term, write it down. Let a writer write with honesty between you, and let not the writer refuse to write as Allah has taught him. So let him write, and let the one who incurs the debt dictate, and let him be wary of Allah, his Lord, and not diminish anything from it. But if the debtor be feeble-minded, or weak, or incapable of dictating himself, then let his guardian dictate with honesty,<b> and take as witness two witnesses from your men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women—from those whom you approve as witnesses—so that if one of the two defaults the other will remind her.</b> The witnesses must not refuse when they are called, and do not consider it wearisome to write it down, whether it be a big or small sum, [as a loan lent] until its term. That is more just with Allah and more upright in respect to testimony, and the likeliest way to avoid doubt, unless it is an on-the-spot deal you transact between yourselves, in which case there is no sin upon you not to write it. Take witnesses when you make a deal, and let no harm be done to the writer or witness, and if you did that, it would be sinful of you. Be wary of Allah and Allah will teach you, and Allah has knowledge of all things.}}
While apologists may argue this shows that this is a command from God, and so human ideas of logic or fairness may not apply, making it not an 'error', critics content that this misogynistic view of women is evidence of it's human authorship (the reason for this is further provided by Muhammad in {{Bukhari|1|6|301}}, in that women are deficient in intelligence and religion, and can lead even cautious men astray (which is also why the majority of inhabitants of hell are women)), from a highly patriarchal society of 7th century Arabia, rather than all-knowing and just God.


==Miracles and myths==
==Miracles and myths==
While miracles by definition are supposed to defy the laws of nature and scientific explanation, the examples of myths and legends briefly listed in this section illlustrate the pre-scientific worldview with which the Quran was composed.
While miracles by definition are supposed to defy the laws of nature and scientific explanation, the examples of myths and legends briefly listed in this section illustrate the pre-scientific worldview with which the Quran was composed.


===Humans turned apes===
===Humans turned apes===
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The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing.
The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing.
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|88}}|So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|88}}|So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.}}
===Hordes trapped by iron wall===
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}
The Quran states that two massive tribes of beasts (Gog and Magog) were and will continue until the Day of Judgement to be trapped behind a massive wall of Iron erected by Dhul-Qarnayn. According to the Qur'an, these two tribes were trapped by Dhul-Qarnayn behind this metal wall and will only be let free on the day of Judgement. However, no such wall or tribes have ever been found despite the advent of global satellite imagery.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|96}}|
Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill. }}


===Supernatural food===
===Supernatural food===
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Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)! }}
Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)! }}


===The existence of Jinn===
===The existence and attributes of Jinn===
{{Main|Jinn}}
{{Main|Jinn}}


The Quran, Hadith and Sira all support the existence of supernatural, generally invisible creatures known as Jinn (جن‎ ''ǧinn'', singular جني ''ǧinnī'' ; variant spelling ''djinn'') living among us (which the main article elaborates on). There is no evidence that these exist.
The Quran, Hadith and Sira all support the existence of supernatural, generally invisible creatures known as Jinn (جن‎ ''ǧinn'', singular جني ''ǧinnī'' ; variant spelling ''djinn'') living among us. In the [[Qur'an]], satan/devil(s) are also jinn ({{Quran|18|50}}), which like humans are sent prophets and have (at least some: ''see [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Predestination]]'') free-will and will be judged accordingly alongside mankind ({{Quran|6|130}}). They can interact with us ({{Quran|6|128}}) and even possess humans ({{Quran|2|275}}) (which the main article elaborates on), and cause people to forget things ({{Quran|18|63}}). As well as create buildings/structures ({{Quran|34|12-13}}). There is no evidence that these exist.


{{Quote|{{quran|72|1}}|Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.}}
{{Quote|{{quran|72|1}}|Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|27|20-23}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|27|20-23}}|
And he took a muster of the Birds; and he said: "Why is it I see not the Hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? I will certainly punish him with a severe Penalty, or execute him, unless he bring me a clear reason (for absence). But the Hoopoe tarried not far: he (came up and) said: "I have compassed (territory) which thou hast not compassed, and I have come to thee from Saba with tidings true. I found (there) a woman ruling over them and provided with every requisite; and she has a magnificent throne.}}
And he took a muster of the Birds; and he said: "Why is it I see not the Hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? I will certainly punish him with a severe Penalty, or execute him, unless he bring me a clear reason (for absence). But the Hoopoe tarried not far: he (came up and) said: "I have compassed (territory) which thou hast not compassed, and I have come to thee from Saba with tidings true. I found (there) a woman ruling over them and provided with every requisite; and she has a magnificent throne.}}
=== The existence of magic and sorcerers ===
''Main article: [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult]]''
No evidence has ever proven that magic is real. However, {{Quran|113|4}} ("evil of those who blow on knots") is reported in commentaries as referring to those who practice magic.<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/113.4 Tafsirs for Quran 113:4]</ref> Knots were commonly associated with magic in antiquity.<ref>Day, C. L. (1950). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1520741 Knots and Knot Lore. Western Folklore], 9(3), 229–256</ref> The next verse, {{Quran|113|5}} ("evil of the envious when he envies), is said to refer to a superstitious belief known as 'The Evil Eye', a physical and mental supernatural condition that affects those who envy. For further explanation see the [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult|main article]].
{{Quote|{{Quran|113|1-5}}|1. Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of the dawn<BR />
2. From the evil of what He has created<BR />
3. And from the evil of the utterly dark night when it comes<BR />
<b>4. And from the evil of those who blow on knots<BR />
5. And from the evil of the envious when he envies</b>}}
At least once, humans are taught magic by satans (believed to be jinn) and angels ([[w:Harut and Marut|Harut and Marut]] are named in this verse):
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|102}}|and they follow what the Satans recited over Solomon's kingdom. Solomon disbelieved not, but the Satans disbelieved, <b>teaching the people sorcery,</b> and that which was sent down upon Babylon's two angels, Harut and Marut; they taught not any man, without they said, 'We are but a temptation; do not disbelieve.' From them they learned how they might divide a man and his wife, yet they did not hurt any man thereby, save by the leave of God, and they learned what hurt them, and did not profit them, knowing well that whoso buys it shall have no share in the world to come; evil then was that they sold themselves for, if they had but known.}}


===Living inside a big fish===
===Living inside a big fish===
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*[[Islam and Science]]
*[[Islam and Science]]
*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]


==References==
==References==
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