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A woman who faced her enemies while empires crumbled, one of the most famous yet elusive women in history, Dahlia was a Berber queen. She is better known as Kahina or al-Kahinat, a title given to her by the Arab Muslims, which means "the witch". | A woman who faced her enemies while empires crumbled, one of the most famous yet elusive [[Islam and Women|women]] in history, Dahlia was a Berber queen. She is better known as Kahina or al-Kahinat, a title given to her by the Arab Muslims, which means "the witch". | ||
{{essay|Basileos}} | {{essay|Basileos}} | ||
==Daughter of the Desert== | ==Daughter of the Desert== | ||
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It was not until 680 AD that the Arabs finally broke through the defenses of the Exarchate. While Romans barricaded themselves in coastal cities, a Muslim commander named Oqba led a raid along the coast that reached the Atlantic Ocean in modern Morocco. It is said that Oqba slashed the waves of the ocean with his sabre, furious that there was no more land to conquer. Upon his return in 683 however, Oqba's army was annihilated by a coalition of Berber tribes, and he himself was slain. | It was not until 680 AD that the Arabs finally broke through the defenses of the Exarchate. While Romans barricaded themselves in coastal cities, a Muslim commander named Oqba led a raid along the coast that reached the Atlantic Ocean in modern Morocco. It is said that Oqba slashed the waves of the ocean with his sabre, furious that there was no more land to conquer. Upon his return in 683 however, Oqba's army was annihilated by a coalition of Berber tribes, and he himself was slain. | ||
This victory, however, merely postponed the eventual fall of the Exarchate. In 697 AD, a new Muslim army entered Africa, under the command of Hassan ibn Numan. | This victory, however, merely postponed the eventual fall of the Exarchate. In 697 AD, a new Muslim army entered Africa, under the command of Hassan ibn Numan. At that point, the weakened forces of the Exarchate could not stop the Arab advance, and following a sneak attack, Carthage fell. | ||
Surprisingly, a Byzantine fleet appeared in African waters and the capital was retaken, only to fall again the following year, after a dramatic siege. Almost all its defenders and most of its civilians perished. In retaliation for its resistance, the Muslims destroyed the city. Thus the ancient city of Carthage, and with it the last Roman presence in Africa, came to an end. | Surprisingly, a Byzantine fleet appeared in African waters and the capital was retaken, only to fall again the following year, after a dramatic siege. Almost all its defenders and most of its civilians perished. In retaliation for its resistance, the Muslims destroyed the city. Thus the ancient city of Carthage, and with it the last Roman presence in Africa, came to an end. | ||
The siege of Carthage, however, had given Dahlia the extra time she had needed. A new power in Africa was born. One consequence of the Byzantine defeat was that the Romans had lost their interest Africa. From this point onward, we have to rely solely on Muslim sources, which are very rarely reliable. | The siege of Carthage, however, had given Dahlia the extra time she had needed. A new power in Africa was born. One consequence of the Byzantine defeat was that the Romans had lost their interest Africa. From this point onward, we have to rely solely on Muslim sources, which are very rarely reliable. | ||
==The Witch == | ==The Witch == | ||
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During the siege of Carthage, Dahlia completed her lifetime's achievement. She consolidated all the major Berber tribes under a common purpose - driving out the invaders. Beginning with guerrilla warfare, she soon graduated to launching full-scale invasion against the Muslims. She was joined in this by the survivors of the Byzantine army, as well as the remnants of the local Visigoths. | During the siege of Carthage, Dahlia completed her lifetime's achievement. She consolidated all the major Berber tribes under a common purpose - driving out the invaders. Beginning with guerrilla warfare, she soon graduated to launching full-scale invasion against the Muslims. She was joined in this by the survivors of the Byzantine army, as well as the remnants of the local Visigoths. | ||
Dahlia attacked the main Muslim army, completely defeating it and pushing the invaders back to Egypt. She even reclaimed the ruins of Carthage. At that point, she was the unquestioned heroine and leader of all of Africa’s population – both nomads, Berbers and Romans. All the ethnic and religious groups united under her banner. She was also joined by some deserters from the Muslim army. One of them, most likely an apostate, became her lieutenant and adopted son. This was also the time when she gained her famous Arabic nickname. | Dahlia attacked the main Muslim army, completely defeating it and pushing the invaders back to Egypt. She even reclaimed the ruins of Carthage. At that point, she was the unquestioned heroine and leader of all of Africa’s population – both nomads, Berbers and Romans. All the ethnic and religious groups united under her banner. She was also joined by some deserters from the Muslim army. One of them, most likely an [[Islam and Apostasy|apostate]], became her lieutenant and adopted son. This was also the time when she gained her famous Arabic nickname. | ||
Without doubt, Dahlia was close to creating an independent state. She ruled with an iron fist. She quickly transformed the anarchic Berber tribes into a disciplined army. She showed great military and administrative skills. She managed to hold Muslims at bay for a long time, perhaps as long as for three years. She also established an administration capable of maintaining a large standing army for this time. Dahlia was an intelligent person and knew that the Muslims would come back, so she prepared for them the best she could. | Without doubt, Dahlia was close to creating an independent state. She ruled with an iron fist. She quickly transformed the anarchic Berber tribes into a disciplined army. She showed great military and administrative skills. She managed to hold Muslims at bay for a long time, perhaps as long as for three years. She also established an administration capable of maintaining a large standing army for this time. Dahlia was an intelligent person and knew that the Muslims would come back, so she prepared for them the best she could. | ||
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==See Also== | ==See Also== | ||
*[[The Story of Umm Qirfa]] | * [[Featured Essays/Op-Eds]] | ||
* [[The Story of Umm Qirfa]] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{refbegin}} | |||
*Roger Collins: Early Medieval Europe | *Roger Collins: Early Medieval Europe | ||
*Georg Ostrogorski: History of the Byzantine Empire | *Georg Ostrogorski: History of the Byzantine Empire | ||
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*[http://web.archive.org/web/20061119231607/http://gess.wordpress.com/2006/08/25/the-legend-of-the-kahina-a-north-african-heroine/ The Legend of the Kahina, a North African Heroine] | *[http://web.archive.org/web/20061119231607/http://gess.wordpress.com/2006/08/25/the-legend-of-the-kahina-a-north-african-heroine/ The Legend of the Kahina, a North African Heroine] | ||
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20080528110037/http://www.swagga.com/queen.htm Great African Queens] | *[http://web.archive.org/web/20080528110037/http://www.swagga.com/queen.htm Great African Queens] | ||
{{refend}} | |||
==Further Reading== | ==Further Reading== | ||
*Primary chronicle: Ibn-Khaldun (a compilation of earlier accounts; very biased and written long time after her death). | *Primary chronicle: Ibn-Khaldun (a compilation of earlier accounts; very biased and written a long time after her death). | ||
*Anonymous, Une Jeanne d'Arc Africaine: Episode de l'Invasion des Arabes en Afrique. Paris, 1890? | *Anonymous, Une Jeanne d'Arc Africaine: Episode de l'Invasion des Arabes en Afrique. Paris, 1890? | ||
*Encyclopedia of African History and Culture. Vol. 2, African Kingdoms (500-1500). Edited by Willie F. Page. | *Encyclopedia of African History and Culture. Vol. 2, African Kingdoms (500-1500). Edited by Willie F. Page. | ||
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*Gautier, E. F. La Passé de L'Afrique de Nord. Paris, 1937. | *Gautier, E. F. La Passé de L'Afrique de Nord. Paris, 1937. | ||
*Hannoum, Abdelmajid. Colonial Histories, Post-Colonial Memories: The Legend of the Kahina, a North African Heroine. Heinemann, 2001. | *Hannoum, Abdelmajid. Colonial Histories, Post-Colonial Memories: The Legend of the Kahina, a North African Heroine. Heinemann, 2001. | ||
*Hannoum, Abdelmajid. The Legend of the Kahina: A Study in Historiography and Mythmaking in North Africa. Ph.D. thesis, Princeton, 1996. | *Hannoum, Abdelmajid. The Legend of the Kahina: A Study in Historiography and Mythmaking in North Africa. Ph.D. thesis, Princeton, 1996. | ||
==Appendix: Dahlia in Fiction== | ==Appendix: Dahlia in Fiction== | ||